2003 invasion of Iraq 2003 a invasão do Iraque From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre
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This article is about the 2003 invasion of Iraq . Este artigo é sobre a invasão 2003 de Iraque . For events after May 1, 2003, see Iraq War . Para eventos após o 01 de maio de 2003, consulte Guerra do Iraque . For the Mongol invasion of Iraq, see Siege of Baghdad (1258) . Para os mongóis invasão do Iraque, consulte Cerco de Bagdá (1258) .
2003 invasion of Iraq 2003 a invasão do Iraque
Part of the Iraq War Parte da Guerra do Iraque
US Army Black Hawk Helicopters from the 101st Combat Aviation Brigade , 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) move into an Iraqi city on 5 April 2003. Exército dos EUA helicópteros Black Hawk da 101 Brigada de Aviação de Combate , 101 ª Divisão Aerotransportada (Assalto Aéreo) se mudam para uma cidade iraquiana em 05 de abril de 2003.
Date Data March 20, 2003 – May 1, 2003 20 março, 2003 - 01 de maio de 2003
Location Localização Iraq Iraque
Result Resultado Decisive Coalition victory Decisiva vitória da coligação
Saddam Hussein 's Baath Party government toppled Saddam Hussein é do Partido Baath do governo derrubado
Establishment of new government Criação de novos governos
Occupation of Iraq Ocupação do Iraque
Continuation of violence in the form of an occupation, an insurgency, and sectarian conflicts Continuação da violência na forma de uma ocupação, uma insurreição, e os conflitos sectários
Belligerents Os beligerantes
Coalition: Coligação:
United States Estados Unidos
United Kingdom Reino Unido
Australia Austrália
Poland Polónia
KDP KDP
PUK PUK
INC [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] INC [1] [2] [3]
Iraq : Iraque :
Iraqi Armed Forces As forças armadas iraquianas
Arab volunteers [ 4 ] [ 5 ] voluntários árabes [4] [5]
Mujahideen [ 4 ] Mujahideen [4]
Commanders and leaders Os comandantes e líderes
George W. Bush George W. Bush
Tommy Franks Tommy Franks
Brian Burridge [ 6 ] Brian Burridge [6]
Massoud Barzani Massoud Barzani
Babakir Zebari Babakir Zebari
Jalal Talabani Jalal Talabani
Nawshirwan Mustafa Nawshirwan Mustafa
Ahmad Chalabi Ahmad Chalabi
Saddam Hussein Saddam Hussein
Qusay Hussein Qusay Hussein
Uday Hussein Uday Hussein
Ali Hassan al-Majid Ali Hassan al-Majid
Barzan Ibrahim Barzan Ibrahim
Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri Izzat Ibrahim al-Duri
Strength Força
United States : 148,000 Estados Unidos : 148.000
I Marine Expeditionary Force I Força Expedicionária Marine
3rd Infantry Div 3a Divisão de Infantaria
4th Infantry Div Divisão de Infantaria 4
101st Airborne Div Divisão Aerotransportada 101
US Spec Ops [ 7 ] Spec Ops EUA [7]
UK : 45,000 Reino Unido : 45.000
1st (UK) Armoured Div 1 (Reino Unido) Div. blindada
16th Air Assault Brigade Brigada de Assalto Aérea 16
3 Commando Brigade 3 Brigada de Comandos
UK Special Forces [ 8 ] Forças Especiais do Reino Unido [8]
Australia : 2,000 Austrália : 2.000
Poland : 183 Polónia : 183
Peshmerga : 70,000 [ 9 ] Peshmerga : 70,000 [9]
INC : 620 INC : 620
Iraq : 375,000 Iraque : 375 mil
Hundreds to thousands Centenas de milhares
Thousands Milhares
Casualties and losses Acidentes e perdas
172 killed (139 US, 33 UK) [ 10 ] 172 mortos (139 dos EUA, Reino Unido 33) [10]
[ 11 ] [11]
+ At least 24 Peshmerga [ 12 ] + Pelo menos 24 Peshmerga [12]
INC Casualties: unknown INC Acidentes: Desconhecido
Estimated Iraqi combatant fatalities : Estimativa de mortos iraquianos combatente :
30,000 (figure attributed to General Tommy Franks), John Keegan Estimates: several thousand combatant deaths. [ 13 ] 30.000 (valor atribuído ao general Tommy Franks), John Keegan Estimativas: milhares de combatentes. várias mortes [13]
7,600–10,800 (4,895–6,370 observed and reported) (Project on Defense Alternatives study) [ 14 ] [ 15 ] 7,600-10,800 (4,895-6,370 observado e relatado) (Projeto de Defesa do estudo de alternativas) [14] [15]
13,500–45,000 (extrapolated from fatality rates in units serving around Baghdad) [ 16 ] 13,500-45,000 (extrapolado a partir de taxas de mortalidade nas unidades de serviço ao redor de Bagdá) [16]
Estimated Iraqi civilian fatalities : Estimativa de mortes de civis iraquianos :
7,269 (Iraq Body Count) [ 17 ] 7269 (Iraq Body Count) [17]
3,200–4,300 (Project on Defense Alternatives study) [ 14 ] 3,200-4,300 (Projeto de Defesa do estudo de alternativas) [14]
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Iraq War Guerra do Iraque
Timelines Linha do tempo
1990-2003 – 2002 – 2003 – 2004 – 2005 – 2006 – 2007 – 2008 – 2009 – 2010 1990-2003 - 2002 - 2.003 - 2,004 mil - 2005 - 2,006 mil - 2007 - 2008 - 2009 - 2010
Phases Fases
Invasion – Post-invasion ( Insurgency – Civil war ) Invasion - pós-invasão ( Insurgency - A guerra civil )
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Battles and operations Batalhas e operações
of the Iraq War da Guerra do Iraque
Umm Qasr – Al Faw – 1st Basra – Nasiriyah – Raid on Karbala – 1st Najaf – Northern Delay – Viking Hammer – Samawah – 1st Karbala – Al Kut – Hillah – Green Line – Karbala Gap – Baghdad – Debecka Pass – Kani Domlan Ridge – Al Anbar – 1st Ramadan – Red Dawn – Spring 2004 – 1st Fallujah – Sadr City – 1st Ramadi – Husaybah – 2nd Najaf – CIMIC-House – Samarra – 2nd Fallujah – Mosul – Lake Tharthar – Al Qaim – Hit – Haditha – Steel Curtain – Tal Afar – 2nd Ramadi – Together Forward – Diwaniya – 2nd Ramadan – Sinbad – Amarah – Turki – Diyala – Haifa Street – Karbala Raid – 3rd Najaf – Imposing Law – UK bases – Black Eagle – Baghdad belts – Baqubah – Donkey Island – Shurta Nasir – Phantom Strike – 2nd Karbala – Phantom Phoenix – 2008 Day of Ashura – Ninawa – Sun – Spring 2008 – 2nd Basra – 2008 Al-Qaeda Offensive – Augurs of Prosperity – Abu Kamal – Palm Grove Umm Qasr - Al Faw - Basra 1 - Nasiriyah - Raid em Karbala - Najaf 1 - Atraso do Norte - Viking Hammer - Samawah - Karbala 1 - Al Kut - Hillah - Linha Verde - Gap Karbala - Bagdá - Debecka Pass - Ridge Domlan Kani - Al Anbar - Ramadan 1 - Red Dawn - Primavera de 2004 - 1 Fallujah - Sadr City - Ramadi 1 - Husaybah - Najaf 2 - Casa-CIMIC - Samarra - Fallujah 2 - Mosul - Lago Tharthar - Al Qaim - Hit - Haditha - Cortina de Aço - Tal Afar - Ramadi 2 - Juntos Avante - Diwaniya - Ramadan 2 - Sinbad - Amarah - Turki - Diyala - Haifa Street - Raid Karbala - 3 Najaf - Imposição da Lei - bases do Reino Unido - Águia Negra - cintos de Bagdá - Baqubah - Donkey Island - Shurta Nasir - Phantom Strike - Karbala 2 - Phantom Phoenix - 2008 Dia da Ashura - Ninawa - dom - Spring 2008 - 2 Basra - 2008 Al-Qaeda Ofensiva - áugures da Prosperidade - Abu Kamal - Palm Grove
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Major insurgent attacks Grandes ataques insurgentes
since the Iraq War desde a Guerra do Iraque
Bold indicates attacks resulting in over 100 deaths Negrito indica ataques, resultando em mais de 100 mortes
Purple color indicates the deadliest attack in the Iraq War cor roxa indica o pior ataque na Guerra do Iraque
2003: 1st Baghdad – 2nd Baghdad – Najaf – 3rd Baghdad – Nasiriyah – 1st Karbala 2003: 1 Bagdad - 2 Bagdá - Najaf - 3 Bagdá - Nasiriyah - Karbala 1
2004: Irbil – Ashoura – Basra – Mosul – 4th Baghdad – 5th Baghdad – Karbala-Najaf – 1st Baqubah – Kufa – FOB Marez 2004: Irbil - Ashura - Basra - Mosul - 4 Bagdá - 5 Bagdá - Karbala, Najaf - Baqubah 1 - Kufa - Marez FOB
2005: 1st Al Hillah – Musayyib – 6th Baghdad – 7th Baghdad – 1st Balad – Khanaqin 2005: Al Hillah 1 - Musayyib - 6 Bagdá - Bagdá, 7 - Balad 1 - Khanaqin
2006: Karbala-Ramadi – 1st Samarra – 8th Baghdad – 9th Baghdad – 10th Baghdad : 2006 Karbala-Ramadi - Samarra 1 - Bagdá 8 - 9 Bagdá - Bagdá 10
2007: 11th Baghdad – 12th Baghdad – 13th Baghdad – 14th Baghdad – 15th Baghdad – 2nd Al Hillah – 1st Tal Afar – 16th Baghdad – 17th Baghdad – 2nd Karbala – 18th Baghdad – 3rd Karbala – Makhmour – Abu Sayda – 2nd Samarra – 19th Baghdad – Amirli – 1st Kirkuk – 20th Baghdad – 21st Baghdad – Qahtaniya – Amarah 2007: 11 em Bagdá - Bagdá 12 - 13 em Bagdá - Bagdá 14 - 15 em Bagdá - Al Hillah 2 - Tal Afar 1 - Bagdá 16 - 17 em Bagdá - de Karbala 2 - Bagdá 18 - 3 Karbala - Makhmour - Abu Sayda - Samarra 2 - 19 em Bagdá - Amirli - Kirkuk 1 - 20 em Bagdá - 21 em Bagdá - Qahtaniya - Amarah
2008: 22nd Baghdad – 2nd Balad – 23rd Baghdad – 4th Karbala – 24th Baghdad – Karmah – 2nd Baqubah – Dujail – Balad Ruz 2008: 22 em Bagdá - Balad 2 - 23 em Bagdá - de Karbala 4 - 24 em Bagdá - Karmah - Baqubah 2 - Dujail - Balad Ruz
2009: 25th Baghdad – 26th Baghdad – Baghdad-Muqdadiyah – Taza – 27th Baghdad – 2nd Kirkuk – 2nd Tal Afar – 28th Baghdad – 29th Baghdad – 30th Baghdad 2009: 25 em Bagdá - 26 em Bagdá - Muqdadiyah-Bagdá - Taza - 27 em Bagdá - Kirkuk 2 - Tal Afar 2 - Bagdá 28 - 29 em Bagdá - Bagdá 30
2010: 31st Baghdad – 32nd Baghdad – 3rd Baqubah – 33rd Baghdad – 34th Baghdad – 35th Baghdad – 1st Pan-Iraq – 36th Baghdad – 37th Baghdad – 2nd Pan-Iraq – 38th Baghdad – 39th Baghdad – 40th Baghdad 2010: 31 em Bagdá - Bagdá, 32 - 3 Baqubah - 33 em Bagdá - Bagdá 34 - 35 em Bagdá - 1 Pan-Iraque - Bagdá 36 - 37 em Bagdá - segundo Pan-Iraque - Bagdá 38 - Bagdá 39 - 40 em Bagdá
2011: 41st Baghdad – 3rd Pan-Iraq – Karbala-Baghdad – 42nd Baghdad 2011: 41 em Bagdá - terceiro Pan-Iraque - Bagdá, Karbala, - 42 em Bagdá
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Recent wars and conflicts recentes guerras e conflitos
in the Persian Gulf no Golfo Pérsico
Iran-Iraq War – Opera – Gulf War – 1991 uprisings – Provide Comfort – Southern Watch – 1993 cruise missile strikes – Kurdish Civil War – Desert Strike – Northern Watch – Desert Fox – Kurdistan Islamist Conflict – Southern Focus – Iraq War Guerra Irã-Iraque - Opera - Guerra do Golfo - 1991 levantes - Provide Comfort - Southern Watch - 1.993 ataques de mísseis de cruzeiro - curda Guerra Civil - Desert Strike - Northern Watch - Raposa do Deserto - Conflitos Curdistão islâmico - Sul Focus - Guerra do Iraque
The 2003 invasion of Iraq (March 20 – May 1, 2003), was the start of the conflict known as the Iraq War or Operation Iraqi Freedom in which a combined force of troops from the United States , alongside the United Kingdom , and smaller contingents from Australia and Poland invaded Iraq and toppled the regime of Saddam Hussein in 21 days of major combat operations. A invasão do Iraque em 2003 (20 de março - 1 de maio de 2003), foi o início do conflito conhecido como a Guerra do Iraque ou a Operação Liberdade do Iraque em que uma força conjunta de tropas dos Estados Unidos , ao lado do Reino Unido , e os contingentes mais pequenos da Austrália e Polônia invadiram o Iraque e derrubaram o regime de Saddam Hussein em 21 dias de grandes operações de combate. This phase (March–April 2003) consisted of a conventionally fought war which concluded with the fall of Baghdad that marked the beginning of the second phase, the Iraq War which would last until August 31, 2010 , and was followed by Operation New Dawn. [ clarification needed ] This was considered a continuation of the Gulf War of 1991, prior to which Saddam Hussein had invaded Kuwait, and after defeat by Coalition Forces had agreed to surrender and/or destroy several types of weapons, including SCUD missiles and weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Esta fase (Março-Abril de 2003) consistiu em uma guerra travada convencionalmente que terminou com a queda de Bagdá, que marcou o início da segunda fase, a Guerra do Iraque, que duraria até 31 de agosto de 2010 , e foi seguida pela Operação New Dawn. [ esclarecimentos necessários ] Isso foi considerado uma continuação da Guerra do Golfo de 1991, antes que Saddam Hussein invadiu o Kuwait, e após a derrota pelas Forças da Coalizão tinha concordado em se render e / ou destruir vários tipos de armas, incluindo mísseis Scud e armas de destruição em massa (ADM).
Since the Persian Gulf War in 1991 the US and Britain had been keeping a tight rein on Saddam Hussein, waging an undeclared conflict against Iraq for twelve years. US President Bill Clinton had maintained sanctions and ordered air strikes in the "Iraqi no-fly zones" Operation Desert Fox , in the hope that Saddam would be overthrown by political enemies inside Iraq and had signed into law HR 4655, the Iraq Liberation Act . [ 18 ] which appropriated funds to Iraqi opposition groups.Four countries participated with troops during the initial invasion phase, which lasted from March 20 to April 9, 2003. Desde a Guerra do Golfo Pérsico , em 1991, os EUA ea Grã-Bretanha tinha sido manter rédea curta sobre Saddam Hussein, travam um conflito não declarado contra o Iraque por 12 anos. presidente dos EUA, Bill Clinton manteve sanções e ordenou ataques aéreos no Iraque "no-fly " Operação Raposa do Deserto , na esperança de que Saddam seria derrubada por inimigos políticos no Iraque e tinha assinado em lei HR 4655, o Iraq Liberation Act . [18] , que apropriou de fundos para países groups.Four oposição iraquiana participaram com tropas durante a fase inicial fase de invasão, que durou de março 20 - abril 9, 2003. These were the United States (148,000), United Kingdom (45,000), Australia (2,000), and Poland (194). 36 other countries were involved in its aftermath. Estes foram os Estados Unidos (148.000), Reino Unido (45.000), Austrália (2.000) e Polônia (194). 36 outros países estavam envolvidos em suas conseqüências. In preparation for the invasion, 100,000 US troops were assembled in Kuwait by February 18. [ 19 ] The United States supplied the vast majority of the invading forces, but also received support from Kurdish irregulars in Iraqi Kurdistan . Em preparação para a invasão, 100 mil soldados dos EUA foram reunidos em Kuwait por 18 de fevereiro. [19] Os Estados Unidos forneceram a grande maioria das forças invasoras, mas também recebeu apoio do irregulares curdos no Curdistão iraquiano .
According to US President George W. Bush and British Prime Minister Tony Blair , the reasons for the invasion were "to disarm Iraq of weapons of mass destruction, to end Saddam Hussein's alleged support for terrorism , and to free the Iraqi people." [ 20 ] According to Blair, the trigger was Iraq's failure to take a "final opportunity" to disarm itself of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons that US and British officials called an immediate and intolerable threat to world peace. [ 21 ] Although some remnants of pre-1991 production were found after the end of the war [ citation needed ] , US government spokespeople confirmed that these were not the weapons for which the US went to war [ citation needed ] . De acordo com o presidente dos EUA, George W. Bush eo primeiro-ministro britânico Tony Blair , as razões para a invasão foram "para desarmar o Iraque de armas de destruição em massa, a fim de Saddam Hussein suposto apoio ao terrorismo , e para libertar o povo iraquiano. " [20 ] De acordo com Blair, o gatilho foi o facto de o Iraque para tomar uma "última oportunidade" para desarmar-se de armas nucleares, químicas e biológicas que os EUA e os funcionários britânicos chamado e intolerável ameaça imediata à paz mundial. [21] Apesar de alguns remanescentes de produção pré-1991 foram encontrados após o final da guerra [ carece de fontes? ], EUA porta-vozes do governo confirmaram que estas não foram as armas para o qual os EUA foram à guerra [ carece de fontes? ]. There also have been claims that the war was waged in order to take oil from Iraq. [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] In 2005, the Central Intelligence Agency released a report saying that no weapons of mass destruction had been found in Iraq. [ 25 ] Houve também afirma que a guerra foi travada a fim de tomar o petróleo iraquiano. [22] [23] [24] Em 2005, a Agência Central de Inteligência divulgou um relatório dizendo que não há armas de destruição maciça tivesse sido encontrada no Iraque. [25]
There was increasingly strong pressure among American policy influencers, from the mid-1990s on, that regime change in Iraq was important to the overall goals of American foreign policy. Havia cada vez mais uma forte pressão entre os formadores de opinião política americana, desde meados da década de 1990, que a mudança de regime no Iraque era importante para os objectivos gerais da política externa americana. In a January 2003 CBS poll 64% of US nationals had approved of military action against Iraq, however 63% wanted Bush to find a diplomatic solution rather than go to war, and 62% believed the threat of terrorism directed against the US would increase due to war. [ 26 ] The invasion of Iraq was strongly opposed by some traditional US allies, including the governments of France , Germany , New Zealand , and Canada . [ 27 ] [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Their leaders argued that there was no evidence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq and that invading the country was not justified in the context of UNMOVIC 's February 12, 2003 report. Em uma pesquisa da CBS 2003 janeiro 64% dos cidadãos dos EUA havia aprovado a uma ação militar contra o Iraque, no entanto 63% queriam Bush para encontrar uma solução diplomática ao invés de ir para a guerra, e 62% acreditavam que a ameaça de terrorismo dirigido contra os EUA aumentariam devido para a guerra. [26] A invasão do Iraque foi fortemente contestado por alguns tradicionais aliados EUA, incluindo os governos da França , Alemanha , Nova Zelândia e Canadá . [27] [28] [29] Seus líderes argumentaram que não havia nenhuma evidência de armas de destruição em massa no Iraque e que invadir o país não se justifica no contexto da UNMOVIC s '12 de fevereiro de 2003 relatório. On February 15, 2003, a month before the invasion, there were worldwide protests against the Iraq war , including a rally of three million people in Rome , which is listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the largest ever anti-war rally. [ 30 ] According to the French academic Dominique Reynié , between January 3 and April 12, 2003, 36 million people across the globe took part in almost 3,000 protests against the Iraq war. [ 31 ] Em 15 de fevereiro de 2003, um mês antes da invasão, havia em todo o mundo manifestações contra a guerra do Iraque , incluindo um comício de três milhões de pessoas em Roma , que está listado no Guinness Book of Records como o maior alguma vez contra a guerra do rali. [ 30] De acordo com o francês acadêmica Dominique Reynie , entre 03 de janeiro e 12 de abril de 2003, 36 milhões de pessoas em todo o mundo participaram quase 3.000 protestos contra a guerra no Iraque. [31]
The invasion was preceded by an air strike on the Presidential Palace in Baghdad on March 19, 2003. A invasão foi precedida por um ataque aéreo ao Palácio Presidencial em Bagdá em 19 de março de 2003. The following day coalition forces launched an incursion into Basra Province from their massing point close to the Iraqi-Kuwaiti border. As forças da coalizão dia seguinte lançaram uma incursão Basra Província de seu ponto próximo juntando à fronteira com o Iraque-Kuwait. While commandos launched an amphibious assault from the Persian Gulf to secure Basra and the surrounding petroleum fields, the main invasion army moved into southern Iraq, occupying the region and engaging in the Battle of Nasiriyah on March 23. Enquanto comandos lançou um ataque anfíbio dos golfo Pérsico para proteger Basra e os campos de petróleo ao redor, o exército invasor principais mudou-se para o sul do Iraque, que ocupam a região e participar na Batalha de Nasiriyah em 23 de março. Massive air strikes across the country and against Iraqi command and control threw the defending army into chaos and prevented an effective resistance. ataques aéreos maciços em todo o país e contra o comando iraquiano e controle jogou o exército de defesa no caos e impediu uma resistência efetiva.
On March 26 the 173rd Airborne Brigade was airdropped near the northern city of Kirkuk where they joined forces with Kurdish rebels and fought several actions against the Iraqi army to secure the northern part of the country. Em 26 de março a 173 Brigada Aerotransportada foi airdropped perto da cidade de Kirkuk , onde juntou forças com curdos rebeldes e lutou diversas ações contra o exército iraquiano para proteger a parte norte do país.
The main body of coalition forces continued their drive into the heart of Iraq and met with little resistance. O corpo principal das forças de coalizão continuaram a sua unidade para o centro do Iraque e reuniu-se com pouca resistência. Most of the Iraqi military was quickly defeated and Baghdad was occupied on April 9. A maior parte dos militares iraquianos foi rapidamente derrotada e Bagdá foi ocupada em 09 de abril. Other operations occurred against pockets of the Iraqi army including the capture and occupation of Kirkuk on April 10, and the attack and capture of Tikrit on April 15. Iraqi President Saddam Hussein and the central leadership went into hiding as the coalition forces completed the occupation of the country. Outras operações ocorreu contra bolsos do exército iraquiano, incluindo a captura e ocupação de Kirkuk em 10 de abril, e no ataque e captura de Tikrit, em 15 de abril. O presidente iraquiano, Saddam Hussein ea liderança central passou a ficar escondido enquanto as forças da coalizão completou a ocupação de do país. On May 1 an end of major combat operations was declared, ending the invasion period and beginning the military occupation period. Em 01 de maio uma final de grandes operações de combate foi declarado, terminando o período de invasão e início da ocupação militar período.
Contents Conteúdo [hide]
1 Prelude to the invasion 1 Prelude à invasão
1.1 Preparations for war 1,1 Os preparativos para a guerra
2 Attempts to avoid war Duas tentativas de evitar a guerra
3 Casus belli and rationale 3 casus belli e fundamentos
3.1 Unmanned Iraqi drones 3,1 iraquiano aviões não tripulados
3.2 Human rights 3.2 Direitos Humanos
4 Legality of invasion 4 Legalidade da invasão
5 Military aspects 5 aspectos Militar
5.1 Multilateral support 5.1 Suporte Multilateral
5.2 Invasion force 5,2 força de invasão
5.3 Preparation 5.3 Preparação
5.4 Defending force Defendendo 5,4 vigor
6 Invasion 6 Invasion
6.1 Opening salvo: the Dora Farms strike 6,1 salva de abertura: a Dora greve Fazendas
6.2 Opening attack 6,2 ataque Abertura
6.2.1 Battle of Nasiriyah 6.2.1 Batalha de Nasiriyah
6.2.2 Battle of Najaf 6.2.2 Batalha de Najaf
6.2.3 Basra 6.2.3 Basra
6.3 Karbala Gap 6,3 Gap Karbala
6.4 Special operations 6,4 As operações especiais
6.5 Fall of Baghdad (April 2003) Queda de 6,5) em Bagdá (Abril de 2003
6.6 Other areas 6,6 Outras áreas
7 Coalition and Allied contingent involvement 7 Coalition e Afins envolvimento contingente
7.1 United Kingdom 7,1 Reino Unido
7.2 Polish 7,2 polaco
7.3 Australia 7,3 Austrália
7.4 Summary of the invasion 7.4 Sumário da invasão
7.5 Security, looting and war damage 7,5 segurança, roubos e danos de guerra
7.6 Bush declares "End of major combat operations" (May 2003) 7,6 Bush declara "Fim de grandes operações de combate" (Maio de 2003)
8 Casualties 8 Casualties
8.1 Death toll Número de mortos por 8,1
8.2 Iraqi refugees 8,2 refugiados iraquianos
8.3 War Crimes 8,3 Crimes de Guerra
9 Media coverage 9 A cobertura da mídia
9.1 US media coverage 9,1 EUA cobertura da mídia
9.2 Independent media coverage 9,2 a cobertura da mídia independente
9.3 International media coverage 9,3 a cobertura da mídia internacional
10 Criticism 10 Crítica
10.1 Rationale based on faulty evidence 10,1 Fundamentação baseado em provas
10.2 Lack of a UN mandate 10,2 Falta de um mandato da ONU
10.3 Military intervention vs diplomatic solution A intervenção militar contra 10,3 solução diplomática
10.4 Distraction from the war on terrorism and other priorities 10,4 Distração de guerra contra o terrorismo e outras prioridades
10.5 Potential to destabilize the region 10,5 potencial de desestabilizar a região
11 Related phrases 11 frases relacionadas
12 See also 12 Ver também
13 Notes 13 Notas
14 References 14 Referências
15 Further reading 15 Leitura adicional
16 External links 16 ligações externas
16.1 Video 16,1 vídeo
[ edit ] Prelude to the invasion [ editar ] Prelúdio para a invasão
Two F-16 Falcon aircraft prepare to depart on a patrol as part of Operation Southern Watch. Dois F-16 Falcon aviões se preparam para partir em uma patrulha como parte da Operação Southern Watch.
A UN weapons inspector in Iraq. Um inspetor de armas da ONU no Iraque. The Gulf War ended on February 28, 1991 with a cease-fire negotiated between the US, its allies and Iraq. [ 32 ] The US and it allies tried to keep Saddam in check with military actions such as Operation Southern Watch which was an conducted by Joint Task Force Southwest Asia (JTF-SWA) with the mission of monitoring and controlling airspace south of the 32nd Parallel (extended to the 33rd Parallel in 1996) as well as using economic sanctions. A Guerra do Golfo terminou em 28 de fevereiro de 1991 com um cessar-fogo negociado entre os EUA, seus aliados e do Iraque. [32] Os EUA e seus aliados tentaram manter Saddam em xeque com ações militares como a Operação Southern Watch , que foi realizado um pela Força-Tarefa Conjunta Sudoeste Asiático (JTF-SWA) com a missão de monitoramento e controle do espaço aéreo do sul do Paralelo 32 (prorrogado até o Paralelo 33 em 1996), bem como a utilização de sanções econômicas. It was revealed the extent of Saddam Hussein biological weapons (BW) program in Iraq begun in the early 1980s with help from the United States and Britain, in violation of the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) of 1972. Foi revelado o grau de Saddam Hussein armas biológicas (PN) no programa do Iraque começou no início de 1980 com a ajuda dos Estados Unidos e Grã-Bretanha, em violação da Convenção de Armas Biológicas (BWC) de 1972. Details of the BW program — along with a chemical weapons program — surfaced in the wake of the Gulf War (1990–91) following investigations conducted by the United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM) which had been charged with the post-war disarmament of Saddam's Iraq. Detalhes do programa de BW - juntamente com um programa de armas químicas - surgiu na sequência da Guerra do Golfo (1990-91) na sequência de investigações realizadas pela Comissão Especial das Nações Unidas (CENU), que tinha sido carregado com a guerra pós-desarmamento de Saddam Iraque. The investigation concluded that there was no evidence the program had continued after the war. O inquérito concluiu que não havia nenhuma evidência que o programa teve continuidade após a guerra. The US and its allies then maintained a policy of “ containment ” towards Iraq. Os EUA e seus aliados, em seguida, manteve uma política de " contenção "em relação ao Iraque. This policy involved numerous economic sanctions by the UN Security Council , US and UK enforcement of Iraqi no-fly zones declared by the US and the UK to protect [ citation needed ] Kurds in Iraqi Kurdistan and Shias in the south, and ongoing inspections to prevent Iraqi development of chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons. Esta política envolvia numerosas sanções econômicas pelo Conselho de Segurança da ONU , EUA e Reino Unido execução de iraquianos no-fly "zonas declaradas por os EUA eo Reino Unido para proteger [ carece de fontes? ] curdos no Curdistão iraquiano e os xiitas no sul, e as inspecções em curso para evitar desenvolvimento iraquiano de armas químicas, biológicas e armas nucleares. Iraqi military helicopters and planes regularly contested the no-fly zones. [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Iraque helicópteros militares e aviões regularmente impugnada, a mosca-das zonas não. [33] [34]
Gen. Anthony C. Zinni briefs reporters at The Pentagon following Operation Desert Fox, December 21, 1998. O general Anthony Zinni C. cuecas jornalistas no Pentágono após Operação Raposa do Deserto, 21 de dezembro de 1998. In October 1998, removing the Hussein regime became official US foreign policy with enactment of the Iraq Liberation Act . Em outubro de 1998, a remoção do regime de Saddam Hussein tornou-se oficial estrangeira a política dos EUA com a promulgação da Lei de Libertação do Iraque . Enacted following the expulsion of UN weapons inspectors the preceding August after some had been caught spying for the US the act provided $97 million for Iraqi "democratic opposition organizations" to "establish a program to support a transition to democracy in Iraq." [ 35 ] This legislation contrasted with the terms set out in United Nations Security Council Resolution 687 , which focused on weapons and weapons programs and made no mention of regime change. [ 36 ] One month after the passage of the Iraq Liberation Act, the US and UK launched a bombardment campaign of Iraq called Operation Desert Fox . Promulgada após a expulsão dos inspetores de armas da ONU no Agosto anterior, após alguns tinham sido capturados espionagem para os EUA, o acto previsto $ 97 milhões em iraquiana "organizações da oposição democrática" para "estabelecer um programa de apoio à transição para a democracia no Iraque." [35] Esta legislação contrastava com os termos estabelecidos no Conselho de Segurança das Nações Unidas para a Resolução 687 , que incidiu sobre as armas e os programas de armas e não fez nenhuma menção de mudança de regime. [36] Um mês após a passagem da Lei de Libertação do Iraque, os EUA eo Reino Unido lançou uma campanha de bombardeamento do Iraque chamada Operação Raposa do Deserto . The campaign's express rationale was to hamper the Hussein government's ability to produce chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons, but US intelligence personnel also hoped it would help weaken Hussein's grip on power. [ 37 ] expressam lógica A campanha foi a dificultar Hussein do governo a capacidade de produzir armas químicas, biológicas e armas nucleares, mas o pessoal de inteligência dos EUA também esperava que fosse ajudar a enfraquecer o aperto Hussein no poder. [37]
With the election of George W. Bush as president in 2000 , the US moved towards a more aggressive policy toward Iraq. Com a eleição de George W. Bush como presidente em 2000 , os EUA se mudou para uma política mais agressiva em relação ao Iraque. The Republican Party's campaign platform in the 2000 election called for "full implementation" of the Iraq Liberation Act and removal of Hussein. O Partido Republicano é plataforma de campanha nas eleições de 2000 apelou a "plena" da Lei de Libertação do Iraque e retirada de Hussein. Key Bush advisors, including Vice President Dick Cheney , Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld , and Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz , had long desired to invade Iraq. [ 38 ] After leaving the George W. Bush administration , Treasury Secretary Paul O'Neill said that an attack on Iraq had been planned since Bush's inauguration, and that the first United States National Security Council meeting involved discussion of an invasion. Bush principais assessores, incluindo o vice-presidente Dick Cheney , o secretário da Defesa Donald Rumsfeld , eo secretário de Defesa Paul Wolfowitz , teve tempo desejado para invadir o Iraque. [38] Depois de deixar a administração de George W. Bush , o secretário do Tesouro Paul O'Neill , disse que um ataque ao Iraque havia sido planejada desde a posse de Bush, e que a primeira United States National Security Council reunião envolveu a discussão de uma invasão. O'Neill later backtracked, saying that these discussions were part of a continuation of foreign policy first put into place by the Clinton administration . [ 39 ] O'Neill depois recuou, dizendo que estas discussões eram parte de uma continuação da política externa primeiro colocado em prática pela administração Clinton . [39]
Despite the Bush administration's stated interest in liberating Iraq, little formal movement towards an invasion occurred until the September 11, 2001 attacks . Apesar de a administração Bush declarou de interesse no Iraque libertadora, movimento formal pouco para uma invasão ocorreu até o 11 de setembro de 2001 ataques . For example, the administration prepared Operation Desert Badger to respond aggressively if any Air Force pilot was shot down while flying over Iraq, but this didn't happen. Por exemplo, a administração preparou a Operação Desert Badger de responder agressivamente se for o caso da Força Aérea piloto foi derrubado ao sobrevoar o Iraque, mas isso não aconteceu. Rumsfeld dismissed National Security Agency (NSA) intercept data available by midday of the 11th. that pointed to al-Qaeda's culpability, and by mid-afternoon ordered the Pentagon to prepare plans for attacking Iraq. [ 40 ] According to aides who were with him in the National Military Command Center on that day, Rumsfeld asked for: "best info fast. Judge whether good enough hit Saddam Hussein at same time. Not only Osama bin Laden ." [ 41 ] The rationale for invading Iraq as a response to 9/11 has been widely questioned, as there was no cooperation between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda . [ 42 ]
Shortly after September 11, 2001 (on September 20), President Bush addressed a joint session of Congress (simulcast live to the world), and announced his new " War on Terrorism ". This announcement was accompanied by the doctrine of 'pre-emptive' military action, later termed the Bush Doctrine . Allegations at a connection between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda link were made by some US Government officials who claimed that a highly secretive relationship existed between former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein and the radical Islamist militant organization Al-Qaeda from 1992 to 2003, specifically through a series of meetings reportedly involving the Iraqi Intelligence Service (IIS). Some Bush advisers favored an immediate invasion of Iraq, while others advocated building an international coalition and obtaining United Nations authorization. Bush eventually decided to seek UN authorization, while still reserving the option of invading without it. [ 43 ]
[ edit ] Preparations for war See also: Public relations preparations for 2003 invasion of Iraq
George W. Bush addressed the General Assembly of the United Nations on 12 September 2002 to outline the complaints of the United States government against the Iraqi government
US President George W. Bush meets with his top advisors on March 19, 2003 just before the invasion. While there had been some earlier talk of action against Iraq, the Bush administration waited until September 2002 to call for action, with White House Chief of Staff Andrew Card saying, "From a marketing point of view, you don't introduce new products in August." [ 44 ] Bush began formally making his case to the international community for an invasion of Iraq in his September 12, 2002 address to the UN Security Council . [ 45 ] Embora tivesse havido alguma conversa antes da ação contra o Iraque, a administração Bush esperou até setembro de 2002 a chamada para a ação, com a Casa Branca, chefe de gabinete , Andrew Card , dizendo: "Do ponto de vista do marketing, não é introduzir novos produtos em agosto. " [44] Bush começou formalmente fazendo o seu caso à comunidade internacional para a invasão do Iraque em sua 12 setembro de 2002 para o endereço de Segurança das Nações Unidas . [45]
Key US allies in NATO , such as the United Kingdom, agreed with the US actions, while France and Germany were critical of plans to invade Iraq, arguing instead for continued diplomacy and weapons inspections. EUA aliados-chave na OTAN , tais como o Reino Unido, concordou com as ações dos EUA, enquanto a França ea Alemanha criticaram os planos de invadir o Iraque, argumentando, em vez de diplomacia continuou e inspeções de armas. After considerable debate, the UN Security Council adopted a compromise resolution , UN Security Council Resolution 1441 , which authorized the resumption of weapons inspections and promised "serious consequences" for non-compliance. Após muitos debates, o Conselho de Segurança da ONU aprovou uma resolução de compromisso , a Resolução 1441 , que autorizou a retomada das inspeções de armas e prometeu "sérias conseqüências" em caso de incumprimento. Security Council members France and Russia made clear that they did not consider these consequences to include the use of force to overthrow the Iraqi government. [ 46 ] Both the US ambassador to the UN, John Negroponte , and the UK ambassador, Jeremy Greenstock , publicly confirmed this reading of the resolution, assuring that Resolution 1441 provided no "automaticity" or "hidden triggers" for an invasion without further consultation of the Security Council. [ 47 ] Membros do Conselho de Segurança da França e da Rússia deixou claro que eles não consideram essas conseqüências para incluir o uso da força para derrubar o governo iraquiano. [46] Tanto o embaixador dos EUA na ONU, John Negroponte , eo embaixador britânico, Jeremy Greenstock , publicamente confirmou esta leitura da resolução, garantindo que a Resolução 1441, desde que não "automatismo" ou "oculto gatilhos" para uma invasão, sem nova consulta do Conselho de Segurança. [47]
Resolution 1441 gave Iraq "a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations" and set up inspections by the United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Resolução 1441 deu o Iraque "uma oportunidade final para cumprir as suas obrigações de desarmamento" e configurar inspecções por parte das Nações Unidas para Monitoramento, Verificação e Inspeção da ONU (UNMOVIC) eo Internacional de Energia Atômica (AIEA). Hussein accepted the resolution on November 13 and inspectors returned to Iraq under the direction of UNMOVIC chairman Hans Blix and IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei . Hussein aceitou a resolução em 13 de novembro e os inspectores voltaram para o Iraque sob a direção do presidente UNMOVIC Hans Blix e Diretor Geral da AIEA , Mohamed ElBaradei . As of February 2003, the IAEA "found no evidence or plausible indication of the revival of a nuclear weapons program in Iraq"; the IAEA concluded that certain items which could have been used in nuclear enrichment centrifuges, such as aluminum tubes, were in fact intended for other uses. [ 48 ] UNMOVIC "did not find evidence of the continuation or resumption of programs of weapons of mass destruction" or significant quantities of proscribed items. Em fevereiro de 2003, a AIEA "não encontrou nenhuma evidência ou indicação plausível do renascimento de um programa de armas nucleares no Iraque", a AIEA concluiu que alguns itens que poderiam ter sido usados em centrífugas de enriquecimento de urânio, tais como tubos de alumínio, foram de fato destinados a outros usos. [48] UNMOVIC "não encontrou provas da continuação ou retomada de programas de armas de destruição em massa", ou grandes quantidades de itens proibidos. UNMOVIC did supervise the destruction of a small number of empty chemical rocket warheads, 50 liters of mustard gas that had been declared by Iraq and sealed by UNSCOM in 1998, and laboratory quantities of a mustard gas precursor, along with about 50 Al-Samoud missiles of a design that Iraq claimed did not exceed the permitted 150 km range, but which had travelled up to 183 km in tests. UNMOVIC fez supervisionar a destruição de um pequeno número de ogivas químicas vazias de foguetes, 50 litros de gás mostarda, que tinha sido declarada pelo Iraque e selado por UNSCOM em 1998, e as quantidades de laboratório de um precursor de gás de mostarda, juntamente com cerca de 50 mísseis Al-Samud de um projeto que o Iraque alegou não ultrapassou os 150 km de alcance permitido, mas que tinha viajado até 183 km em testes. Shortly before the invasion, UNMOVIC stated that it would take "months" to verify Iraqi compliance with resolution 1441. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] [ 51 ] Pouco antes da invasão, a Unmovic declarou que iria levar "meses" para verificar o cumprimento do Iraque com a resolução 1441. [49] [50] [51]
In October 2002 the US Congress passed a " Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq ". Em outubro de 2002, o Congresso dos EUA aprovou uma " Resolução Conjunta para autorizar o uso de Forças Armadas dos Estados Unidos contra o Iraque ". The resolution authorized the President to "use any means necessary" against Iraq, Americans polled in January 2003 widely favored further diplomacy over an invasion. A resolução autorizou o presidente a "usar todos os meios necessários" contra o Iraque, os americanos votaram em Janeiro de 2003 favoreceu amplamente a diplomacia ainda mais de uma invasão. Later that year, however, Americans began to agree with Bush's plan. Mais tarde, naquele ano, porém, os americanos começaram a concordar com o plano de Bush. The US government engaged in an elaborate domestic public relations campaign to market the war to its citizens. O governo dos EUA envolvidos na elaboração de uma campanha de relações públicas nacionais para o mercado da guerra para os seus cidadãos. Americans overwhelmingly believed Hussein did have weapons of mass destruction: 85% said so, even though the inspectors had not uncovered those weapons. Esmagadoramente americanos acreditavam Hussein possuía armas de destruição em massa: 85% disseram que sim, embora os inspectores não tinham descoberto as armas. Of those who thought Iraq had weapons sequestered somewhere, about half responded that said weapons would not be found in combat. Daqueles que pensavam que o Iraque tinha armas seqüestrado em algum lugar, cerca de metade respondeu que disse que as armas não seriam encontrados em combate. By February 2003, 74% of Americans supported taking military action to remove Hussein from power. [ 26 ] Em Fevereiro de 2003, 74% dos americanos apoiavam a tomar medidas militares para remover Hussein do poder. [26]
The Central Intelligence Agency 's Special Activities Division (SAD) teams were the first US forces to enter Iraq, in July 2002, before the main invasion. A Agência Central de Inteligência 's Divisão de Atividades Especiais (SAD), as equipes foram os EUA forças primeiros a entrar no Iraque, em Julho de 2002, antes da invasão principal. Once on the ground, they prepared for the subsequent arrival of US Army Special Forces to organize the Kurdish Peshmerga . Uma vez no chão, eles se prepararam para a chegada subseqüente de Forças Especiais do Exército EUA para organizar os curdos peshmerga . This joint team (called the Northern Iraq Liaison Element (NILE)) [ 52 ] combined to defeat Ansar al-Islam , a group with ties to al Qaeda , in Iraqi Kurdistan . Esta equipa conjunta (chamada de elemento de ligação do Norte do Iraque (NILE)) [52], combinado à derrota Ansar al-Islam , um grupo com ligações à Al-Qaeda , no Curdistão iraquiano . This battle was for control of the territory that was occupied by Ansar al-Islam and took place before the invasion. Esta batalha foi para o controle do território que foi ocupado por Ansar al-Islam e teve lugar antes da invasão. It was carried out by Paramilitary Operations Officers from SAD and the Army's 10th Special Forces Group . Foi realizado por operações oficiais paramilitares do SAD e do Exército 10 Grupo de Forças Especiais . This battle resulted in the defeat of Ansar and the capture of a chemical weapons facility at Sargat . [ 52 ] Sargat was the only facility of its type discovered in the Iraq war. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] Essa batalha resultou na derrota do Ansar ea captura de armas químicas na instalação Sargat . [52] Sargat era a única de seu tipo descoberto na guerra do Iraque. [53] [54]
SAD teams also conducted missions behind enemy lines to identify leadership targets. SAD as equipes também realizaram missões atrás das linhas inimigas para identificar alvos de liderança. These missions led to the initial air strikes against Hussein and his generals. Estas missões levaram à inicial ataques aéreos contra Saddam e seus generais. Although the strike against Hussein was unsuccessful in killing him, it effectively ended his ability to command and control his forces. Embora a greve contra Hussein foi vencida em matá-lo, ele terminou eficazmente a sua capacidade de comando e controle de suas forças. Strikes against Iraq's generals were more successful and significantly degraded the Iraqi command's ability to react to, and maneuver against the US-led invasion force. [ 52 ] [ 55 ] SAD operations officers were also successful in convincing key Iraqi Army officers into surrendering their units once the fighting started. [ 53 ] Greves contra generais no Iraque eram mais bem sucedidos e bastante degradado iraquiano comando a capacidade de reagir, e manobra contra a invasão liderada pelos vigor dos EUA. [52] [55] oficiais SAD operações também foram bem sucedidos em convencer-chave Exército oficiais iraquianos a entregar as suas unidades quando os combates começaram. [53]
NATO member Turkey refused to allow the US army across its territory into northern Iraq [ disambiguation needed ] . membro da NATO Turquia se recusou a permitir que o exército dos EUA em seu território para o norte do Iraque [ desambiguação necessária ]. Therefore, joint SAD and Army Special forces teams and the Pershmerga were the entire Northern force against the Iraqi army. Portanto, SAD comum e as equipes das forças especiais do Exército e da Pershmerga foram toda a força do Norte contra o exército iraquiano. They managed to keep the northern divisions in place rather than allowing them to aid their colleagues against the US led coalition force coming from the south. [ 56 ] Four of these CIA officers were awarded the Intelligence Star for their actions. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] Eles conseguiram manter as divisões norte no lugar ao invés de permitir-lhes ajuda dos seus colegas contra os EUA levaram força de coalizão, que vem do sul. [56] Quatro destes agentes da CIA foram agraciados com o Estrela de Inteligência para suas ações. [53] [54 ]
In February 2003, US Secretary of State Colin Powell addressed the United Nations General Assembly , continuing US efforts to gain UN authorization for an invasion. Em fevereiro de 2003, EUA Secretário de Estado Colin Powell abordou a Assembléia Geral da ONU , continuando os esforços dos EUA para obter autorização da ONU para uma invasão. Powell presented evidence alleging that Iraq was actively producing chemical and biological weapons and had ties to al-Qaeda . Powell apresentou provas, alegando que o Iraque estava produzindo ativamente e biológicas, químicas e tinha ligações à Al-Qaeda . As a follow-up to Powell's presentation, the United States, United Kingdom, Poland, Italy, Australia, Denmark, Japan, and Spain proposed a resolution authorizing the use of force in Iraq, but NATO members like Canada, France, and Germany, together with Russia, strongly urged continued diplomacy. Como um seguimento da apresentação de Powell, os Estados Unidos, Reino Unido, Polónia, Itália, Austrália, Dinamarca, Japão e Espanha propôs uma resolução autorizando o uso da força no Iraque, mas membros da NATO como Canadá, França e Alemanha, juntamente com a Rússia, fortemente pressionado diplomacia continuou. Facing a losing vote as well as a likely veto from France and Russia, the US, UK, Spain, Poland, Denmark, Italy, Japan, and Australia eventually withdrew their resolution. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] Diante de um voto a perder, bem como um provável veto da França e da Rússia, os EUA, Reino Unido, Espanha, Polônia, Dinamarca, Itália, Japão e Austrália se retiraram sua resolução. [57] [58]
Then-Iraqi President Saddam Hussein talks with elite Republican Guard officers in Baghdad on March 1, 2003. [ 59 ] Iraqi News Agency/AP. O então presidente iraquiano, Saddam Hussein conversas com os oficiais de elite da Guarda Republicana em Bagdá, em 01 de março de 2003. [59] Agência de notícias iraquiana / AP. Opposition to the invasion coalesced in the worldwide February 15, 2003 anti-war protest that attracted between six and ten million people in more than 800 cities, the largest such protest in human history according to the Guinness Book of World Records . [ 60 ] A oposição à invasão aglutinaram-se em todo o mundo uma guerra de protesto, 15 anti de fevereiro de 2003 , que atraiu entre seis e dez milhões de pessoas em mais de 800 cidades, a maior manifestação do gênero na história humana de acordo com o Guinness Book of World Records . [60]
In March 2003, the United States, United Kingdom, Spain, Australia, Poland, Denmark, and Italy began preparing for the invasion of Iraq , with a host of public relations and military moves. Em março de 2003, os Estados Unidos, Reino Unido, Espanha, Austrália, Polônia, Dinamarca, Itália e começou a preparação para a invasão do Iraque , com uma série de relações públicas e os movimentos militares. In his March 17, 2003 address to the nation, Bush demanded that Hussein and his two sons, Uday and Qusay , surrender and leave Iraq, giving them a 48-hour deadline. [ 61 ] But the US began the bombing of Iraq on the day before the deadline expired. Em sua 17 março, 2003 discurso à nação, Bush exigiu que Saddam Hussein e seus dois filhos, Uday e Qusay , render e deixar o Iraque, dando-lhes um prazo de 48 horas. [61] Mas os EUA iniciaram o bombardeio do Iraque em dias antes do termo do prazo. On March 18, 2003, the bombing of Iraq by the United States, the United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, Poland, Australia, and Denmark began. Em 18 de março de 2003, o bombardeio do Iraque pelos Estados Unidos, o Reino Unido, Espanha, Itália, Polônia, Austrália e Dinamarca começou. Unlike the first Gulf War or the war in Afghanistan (2001–present) , this war had no explicit UN authorisation. Ao contrário da primeira Guerra do Golfo ou a guerra no Afeganistão (2001-presente) , esta guerra não tinha autorização da ONU explícito.
The UK Parliament held a debate on going to war on March 18, 2003 where the government motion was approved 412 to 149. [ 62 ] The vote was a key moment in the history of the Blair administration , as the number government MPs that rebelled against the vote was the greatest since the repeal of the Corn Laws . O Parlamento do Reino Unido realizou um debate sobre ir à guerra em 18 de março de 2003, onde o movimento do governo foi aprovado 412-149. [62] A votação foi um momento chave na história da gestão Blair , como o governo MPs número que se rebelou contra a votação foi a maior desde a revogação das Leis do Milho . Three government ministers resigned in protest at the war, John Denham , Lord Hunt of Kings Heath , and the then Leader of the House of Commons Robin Cook . Três ministros do governo se demitiu em protesto contra a guerra, John Denham , Senhor Hunt of Kings Heath , eo então líder da Câmara dos Comuns, Robin Cook . Speaking in the House of Commons after his resignation he made a passionate speech. Falando na Câmara dos Comuns , após sua demissão, ele fez um discurso apaixonado. He said, "What has come to trouble me is the suspicion that if the 'hanging chads' of Florida had gone the other way and Al Gore had been elected, we would not now be about to commit British troops to action in Iraq." Ele disse: "O que veio a me incomodar é a suspeita de que se o" chads pendurados 'da Flórida tinha ido por outro caminho e Al Gore tivesse sido eleito, não seria agora prestes a cometer as tropas britânicas para a ação no Iraque ". During the debate it was stated that the Attorney General had advised that the war was legal under previous UN Resolutions. Durante o debate foi afirmado que o Procurador-Geral tinha avisado que a guerra era legal no âmbito de anteriores resoluções da ONU.
[ edit ] Attempts to avoid war [ editar ] Tentativas de evitar a guerra In December 2002, a representative of the head of Iraqi Intelligence , General Tahir Jalil Habbush al-Tikriti , contacted former Central Intelligence Agency Counterterrorism Department head Vincent Cannistraro stating that Hussein "knew there was a campaign to link him to September 11 and prove he had weapons of mass destruction (WMDs)." Em dezembro de 2002, um representante do chefe de inteligência do Iraque , o general Tahir Jalil Habbush al-Tikriti , ex contactado Agência Central de Inteligência de Contraterrorismo do Departamento de cabeça Vincent Cannistraro afirmando que Saddam "sabia que havia uma campanha para ligá-lo a 11 de Setembro e provar que ele tinha armas de destruição maciça (ADM). " Cannistraro further added that "the Iraqis were prepared to satisfy these concerns. I reported the conversation to senior levels of the state department and I was told to stand aside and they would handle it." Cannistraro acrescentou ainda que "os iraquianos estavam preparados para atender a essas preocupações. Relatei a conversa para níveis mais altos do Departamento de Estado e foi-me dito para ficar de lado e eles iriam lidar com isso." Cannistraro stated that the offers made were all "killed" by the George W. Bush administration because they allowed Hussein to remain in power, an outcome viewed as unacceptable. Cannistraro afirmou que as ofertas foram feitos todos os "mortos" pelo George W. Bush porque permitiram Hussein permanecer no poder, um resultado considerado como inaceitável. It has been suggested that Saddam Hussein was prepared to go into exile if allowed to keep $1 billion USD. [ 63 ] Tem sido sugerido que Saddam Hussein estava disposto a exilar-se autorizados a manter US $ 1 bilhão. [63]
Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak 's national security advisor, Osama El-Baz , sent a message to the US State Department that the Iraqis wanted to discuss the accusations that the country had weapons of mass destruction and ties with al-Qaeda. O presidente egípcio Hosni Mubarak é conselheiro de segurança nacional, Osama El-Baz , enviou uma mensagem ao Departamento de Estado dos EUA que os iraquianos queriam discutir as acusações de que o país tinha armas de destruição em massa e ligações com a Al-Qaeda. Iraq also attempted to reach the US through the Syrian, French, German, and Russian intelligence services. O Iraque também tentaram alcançar os EUA através dos serviços de inteligência sírio, francês, alemão e russo. Nothing came of the attempts [ citation needed ] . Nada saiu das tentativas [ carece de fontes? ].
In January 2003, Lebanese-American Imad Hage met with Michael Maloof of the US Department of Defense 's Office of Special Plans . Em janeiro de 2003, libanês-americano Imad Hage se reuniram com Michael Maloof do Departamento de Defesa dos EUA está Escritório de Planos Especiais . Hage, a resident of Beirut , had been recruited by the department to assist in the " War on Terrorism ". Hage, um residente de Beirute , haviam sido recrutados pelo departamento para ajudar na " guerra ao terrorismo ". He reported that Mohammed Nassif , a close aide to Syrian president Bashar al-Assad , had expressed frustrations about the difficulties of Syria contacting the United States, and had attempted to use him as an intermediary. Ele informou que Mohammed Nassif , um assessor próximo ao presidente sírio, Bashar al-Assad , expressou frustração sobre a dificuldade de entrar em contato com a Síria nos Estados Unidos, e tentou usá-lo como intermediário. Maloof arranged for Hage to meet with civilian Richard Perle , then head of the Defense Policy Board . [ 64 ] [ 65 ] Maloof Hage arranjado para se encontrar com civis Richard Perle , então presidente da Câmara de Política de Defesa . [64] [65]
In January 2003, Hage met with the chief of Iraqi intelligence's foreign operations, Hassan al-Obeidi . Em janeiro de 2003, Hage se reuniram com o chefe de operações de inteligência estrangeira no Iraque, Hassan al-Obeidi . Obeidi told Hage that Baghdad didn't understand why they were being targeted, and that they had no WMDs. Obeidi disse Hage que Bagdá não entendia porque eles estavam sendo orientados, e que não tinha armas de destruição maciça. He then made the offer for Washington to send in 2000 FBI agents to confirm this. Ele então fez uma oferta de Washington de enviar, em 2000, agentes do FBI para confirmar isso. He additionally offered petroleum concessions, but stopped short of having Hussein give up power, instead suggesting that elections could be held in two years. Ele adicionalmente oferecidos concessões petrolíferas, mas não chegou a ter Hussein desistir do poder, em vez sugerindo que as eleições pudessem ser realizadas em dois anos. Later, Obeidi suggested that Hage travel to Baghdad for talks; he accepted. [ 64 ] Mais tarde, sugeriu que Obeidi Hage viagem a Bagdá para negociar, aceito. Ele [64]
Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Aziz Vice-Primeiro-ministro iraquiano Tariq Aziz Later that month, Hage met with General Habbush and Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Aziz . Mais tarde naquele mês, Hage se reuniram com Habbush Geral e Vice-Primeiro-ministro iraquiano Tariq Aziz . He was offered top priority to US firms in oil and mining rights, UN-supervised elections, US inspections (with up to 5,000 inspectors), to have al-Qaeda agent Abdul Rahman Yasin (in Iraqi custody since 1994) handed over as a sign of good faith, and to give "full support for any US plan" in the Arab-Israeli peace process . Ele foi oferecido prioridade a empresas dos EUA em petróleo e mineração direitos, supervisionado eleições da ONU, as inspecções dos EUA (com até 5.000 inspetores), de ter al-Qaeda agente Abdul Rahman Yasin (em custódia iraquiana desde 1994) entregue como um sinal de boa fé, e dar "total apoio para qualquer plano dos EUA", o processo de paz israelo-árabe . They also wished to meet with high-ranking US officials. Eles também queriam se encontrar com oficiais de alta patente dos EUA. On February 19, Hage faxed Maloof his report of the trip. Em 19 de fevereiro, Hage fax Maloof seu relatório da viagem. Maloof reports having brought the proposal to Jamie Duran . The Pentagon denies that either Wolfowitz or Rumsfeld, Duran's bosses, were aware of the plan. [ 64 ] Maloof relata ter apresentado a proposta de Jamie Duran . O Pentágono nega que quer Wolfowitz ou Rumsfeld, Duran patrões, tinham conhecimento do plano. [64]
On February 21, Maloof informed Duran in an email that Richard Perle wished to meet with Hage and the Iraqis if the Pentagon would clear it. Em 21 de fevereiro, informou Maloof Duran em um email que Richard Perle desejou encontrar-se com Hage e os iraquianos se o Pentágono poderia desmarcá-la. Duran responded "Mike, working this. Keep this close hold." Duran respondeu: "Mike, trabalhando isso. Guarde este mantenha perto." On March 7, Perle met with Hage in Knightsbridge , and stated that he wanted to pursue the matter further with people in Washington (both have acknowledged the meeting). Em 7 de março, Perle reuniu-se com Hage, em Knightsbridge , e afirmou que ele queria seguir o assunto com as pessoas em Washington (ambos reconheceram a reunião). A few days later, he informed Hage that Washington refused to let him meet with Habbush to discuss the offer (Hage stated that Perle's response was "that the consensus in Washington was it was a no-go"). Poucos dias depois, ele informou Hage que Washington se recusou a deixá-lo encontrar-se com Habbush para discutir a oferta (Hage afirmou que a resposta Perle foi "que o consenso de Washington era que era um no-go"). Perle told The Times , "The message was 'Tell them that we will see them in Baghdad.' Perle disse o Times , "A mensagem era" Diga a eles que vamos vê-los em Bagdá. " " [ citation needed ] "[ carece de fontes? ]
[ edit ] Casus belli and rationale [ editar ] casus belli e fundamentos Main article: Rationale for the Iraq War Ver artigo principal: Razões para a Guerra do Iraque
George Bush, speaking in October 2002, said that “The stated policy of the United States is regime change… However, if Hussein were to meet all the conditions of the United Nations, the conditions that I have described very clearly in terms that everybody can understand, that in itself will signal the regime has changed”. [ 66 ] Based on claims from certain intelligence sources, Bush stated on March 6, 2003 that he believed that Hussein was not complying with UN Resolution 1441 . [ 67 ] George Bush, falando em Outubro de 2002, disse que "a política declarada dos Estados Unidos é o regime de mudança ... No entanto, se Hussein foram para atender a todas as condições das Nações Unidas, as condições que eu descrevi de forma muito clara em termos todos os que podem compreender, que em si vai sinalizar o regime mudou ". [66] Com base em afirmações de fontes de informação certa, Bush declarou, em 06 março de 2003 que ele acreditava que Saddam Hussein não estava cumprindo com resolução 1441 da ONU . [67]
In September 2002, Tony Blair stated, in an answer to a parliamentary question, that “Regime change in Iraq would be a wonderful thing. Em setembro de 2002, Tony Blair afirmou, em resposta a uma pergunta parlamentar, que "a mudança de regime no Iraque seria uma coisa maravilhosa. That is not the purpose of our action; our purpose is to disarm Iraq of weapons of mass destruction…” [ 68 ] In November of that year, Blair further stated that, “So far as our objective, it is disarmament, not régime change - that is our objective. Isso não é o objetivo da nossa ação, nosso objetivo é desarmar o Iraque de armas de destruição em massa ... " [68] Em novembro do mesmo ano, Blair afirmou ainda que, "Até onde o nosso objectivo, que é o desarmamento, e não mudança de regime - Esse é nosso objetivo. Now I happen to believe the regime of Saddam is a very brutal and repressive regime, I think it does enormous damage to the Iraqi people... Agora, acontece que eu acredito que o regime de Saddam é um regime brutal e repressiva, eu acho que ele faz enormes prejuízos para o povo iraquiano ... so I have got no doubt Saddam is very bad for Iraq, but on the other hand I have got no doubt either that the purpose of our challenge from the United Nations is disarmament of weapons of mass destruction, it is not regime change.” [ 69 ] então eu não tenho dúvida de que Saddam é muito ruim para o Iraque, mas por outro lado eu não tenho dúvida, quer que o propósito do nosso desafio das Nações Unidas é o desarmamento de armas de destruição em massa, não é uma mudança de regime ". [ 69]
At a press conference on January 31, 2003, Bush again reiterated that the single trigger for the invasion would be Iraq's failure to disarm, “Saddam Hussein must understand that if he does not disarm, for the sake of peace, we, along with others, will go disarm Saddam Hussein.” [ 70 ] As late as February 25, 2003, it was still the official line that the only cause of invasion would be a failure to disarm. Numa conferência de imprensa em 31 de janeiro de 2003, Bush voltou a reiterar que o único gatilho para a invasão seria facto de o Iraque se desarmar ", Saddam Hussein deve entender que se ele não desarma, em prol da paz, nós, juntamente com outros , vai desarmar Saddam Hussein. " [70] Já em 25 de fevereiro de 2003, ainda era a linha oficial de que a única causa da invasão seria um fracasso para desarmar. As Blair made clear in a statement to the House of Commons, “I detest his regime. Como Blair deixou claro em um comunicado à Câmara dos Comuns, "eu detesto o seu regime. But even now he can save it by complying with the UN's demand. Mas até agora ele pode salvá-lo, cumprindo exigência da ONU. Even now, we are prepared to go the extra step to achieve disarmament peacefully.” [ 71 ] Mesmo agora, nós estamos preparados para ir a etapa extra para alcançar o desarmamento pacífico. " [71]
Additional justifications used at various times included Iraqi violation of UN resolutions, the Iraqi government's repression of its citizens, and Iraqi violations of the 1991 cease-fire. [ 20 ] justificações adicionais utilizadas em vários momentos incluídos violação do Iraque das resoluções da ONU, o governo iraquiano a repressão dos seus cidadãos, e as violações iraquianas do cessar-fogo de 1991. [20]
Chemical attack victims. vítimas de ataque químico.
Aftermath of Saddam Hussein's use of chemical weapons at Halabja. Consequências do uso de Saddam Hussein usou armas químicas em Halabja. The main allegations were that Hussein possessed or was attempting to produce weapons of mass destruction which Saddam Hussein , had used such as in Halabja, [ 72 ] [ 73 ] possessed, and made efforts to acquire. As principais justificativas foram que Saddam Hussein possuía ou estava tentando produzir armas de destruição em massa que Saddam Hussein , tinha utilizado, como em Halabja, [72] [73] possuía, e fez esforços para adquirir. Particularly considering two previous attacks on Baghdad nuclear weapons production facilities by both Iran and Israel which was alleged to have postponed weapons development progress. Especialmente considerando dois ataques anteriores em Bagdá instalações de produção de armas nucleares pelo Irã e Israel, que foi acusado de ter adiado o progresso do desenvolvimento de armas. And that he had ties to terrorists , specifically al-Qaeda . E que ele tinha ligações com terroristas , nomeadamente a Al-Qaeda .
While it never made an explicit connection between Iraq and the September 11 attacks , the George W. Bush administration repeatedly insinuated a link, thereby creating a false impression for the US public. Apesar de nunca ter feito uma conexão explícita entre o Iraque eo 11 de Setembro , a administração de George W. Bush repetidamente insinuou uma relação, criando uma falsa impressão para o público dos EUA. Grand jury testimony from the 1993 World Trade Center attack trials cited numerous direct linkages from the bombers to Baghdad and Department 13 of the Iraqi Intelligence Service in that initial attack marking the second anniversary to vindicate the surrender of Iraqi armed forces in Operation Desert Storm . Grande testemunho júri da 1993 ataque ao World Trade Center ensaios citados numerosos vínculos diretos dos bombardeiros de Bagdá e 13 do Departamento de Serviços Secretos Iraquianos no ataque inicial que marca o segundo aniversário de reivindicar a rendição das forças iraquianas na Operação Tempestade no Deserto . For example, The Washington Post has noted that, Por exemplo, o The Washington Post fez notar que,
“ " While not explicitly declaring Iraqi culpability in the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, administration officials did, at various times, imply a link. Apesar de não declarar explicitamente a culpabilidade do Iraque nos atentados 11 de setembro de 2001, terroristas, funcionários da administração que, por diversas vezes, implicam um link. In late 2001, Cheney said it was "pretty well confirmed" that attack mastermind Mohamed Atta had met with a senior Iraqi intelligence official. No final de 2001, Cheney disse que foi "muito bem confirmado" que atacam o cérebro Mohamed Atta tinha encontrado com um funcionário da inteligência iraquiana. Later, Cheney called Iraq the "geographic base of the terrorists who had us under assault now for many years, but most especially on 9/11." [ 74 ] Mais tarde, Cheney chamou o Iraque a "base geográfica dos terroristas que tinham-nos sob o assalto por muitos anos, mas sobretudo em 11/09." [74] ” "
Steven Kull , director of the Program on International Policy Attitudes (PIPA) at the University of Maryland , observed in March 2003 that "The administration has succeeded in creating a sense that there is some connection [between Sept. 11 and Saddam Hussein]". This was following a New York Times / CBS poll that showed 45% of Americans believing Saddam Hussein was "personally involved" in the September 11 atrocities. As the Christian Science Monitor observed at the time, while "Sources knowledgeable about US intelligence say there is no evidence that Hussein played a role in the Sept. 11 attacks, nor that he has been or is currently aiding Al Qaeda... the White House appears to be encouraging this false impression, as it seeks to maintain American support for a possible war against Iraq and demonstrate seriousness of purpose to Hussein's regime." The CSM went on to report that, while polling data collected "right after Sept. 11, 2001" showed that only 3 percent mentioned Iraq or Saddam Hussein, by January 2003 attitudes "had been transformed" with a Knight Ridder poll showing that 44% of Americans believed "most" or "some" of the September 11 hijackers were Iraqi citizens. [ 75 ]
The BBC has also noted that while President Bush, "never directly accused the former Iraqi leader of having a hand in the attacks on New York and Washington", he, "repeatedly associated the two in keynote addresses delivered since September 11", adding that, "Senior members of his administration have similarly conflated the two." For instance, the BBC report quotes Colin Powell in February 2003, stating that, "We've learned that Iraq has trained al-Qaeda members in bomb-making and poisons and deadly gases. And we know that after September 11, Saddam Hussein's regime gleefully celebrated the terrorist attacks on America." The same BBC report also noted the results of a recent opinion poll, which suggested that "70% of Americans believe the Iraqi leader was personally involved in the attacks." [ 76 ]
Also in September 2003, the Boston Globe reported that "Vice President Dick Cheney, anxious to defend the White House foreign policy amid ongoing violence in Iraq, stunned intelligence analysts and even members of his own administration this week by failing to dismiss a widely discredited claim: that Saddam Hussein might have played a role in the Sept. 11 attacks." [ 77 ] A year later, presidential candidate John Kerry alleged that Cheney was continuing "to intentionally mislead the American public by drawing a link between Saddam Hussein and 9/11 in an attempt to make the invasion of Iraq part of the global war on terror." [ 78 ]
Throughout 2002, the Bush administration insisted that removing Hussein from power to restore international peace and security was a major goal. The principal stated justifications for this policy of "regime change" were that Iraq's continuing production of weapons of mass destruction and known ties to terrorist organizations , as well as Iraq's continued violations of UN Security Council resolutions, amounted to a threat to the US and the world community.
Colin Powell holding a model vial of anthrax while giving presentation to the United Nations Security Council on February 5, 2003 (still photograph captured from video clip, The White House/CNN) Wikisource has original text related to this article: Wikisource tem texto original relacionado a este artigo:
Colin Powell's February 5, 2003 address to The United Nations Security Council
The Bush administration's overall rationale for the invasion of Iraq was presented in detail by US Secretary of State Colin Powell to the United Nations Security Council on February 5, 2003. In summary, he stated,
“ " We know that Saddam Hussein is determined to keep his weapons of mass destruction; he's determined to make more. Given Saddam Hussein's history of aggression... given what we know of his terrorist associations and given his determination to exact revenge on those who oppose him, should we take the risk that he will not some day use these weapons at a time and the place and in the manner of his choosing at a time when the world is in a much weaker position to respond? The United States will not and cannot run that risk to the American people. Leaving Saddam Hussein in possession of weapons of mass destruction for a few more months or years is not an option, not in a post-September 11 world. [ 79 ] ” "
Since the invasion, the US and British government claims concerning Iraqi weapons programs and links to terrorist organizations have been discredited. While the debate of whether Iraq intended to develop chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons in the future remains open, no WMDs have been found in Iraq since the invasion despite comprehensive inspections lasting more than 18 months. [ 80 ] In Cairo, on February 24, 2001, Colin Powell had predicted as much, saying, "[Hussein] has not developed any significant capability with respect to weapons of mass destruction. He is unable to project conventional power against his neighbours." [ 81 ] Similarly, assertions of significant operational links [ citation needed ] between the Iraqi regime and al Qaeda have largely been discredited by the intelligence community, and Secretary Powell himself eventually admitted he had no incontrovertible proof. [ 82 ]
In September 2002, the Bush administration said attempts by Iraq to acquire thousands of high-strength aluminum tubes pointed to a clandestine program to make enriched uranium for nuclear bombs. Powell, in his address to the UN Security Council just before the war, referred to the aluminum tubes. A report released by the Institute for Science and International Security in 2002, however, reported that it was highly unlikely that the tubes could be used to enrich uranium. Powell later admitted he had presented an inaccurate case to the United Nations on Iraqi weapons, based on sourcing that was wrong and in some cases "deliberately misleading." [ 83 ] [ 84 ] [ 85 ]
The Bush administration asserted that the Hussein government had sought to purchase yellowcake uranium from Niger . [ 86 ] On March 7, 2003, the US submitted intelligence documents as evidence to the International Atomic Energy Agency . These documents were dismissed by the IAEA as forgeries, with the concurrence in that judgment of outside experts. At the time, a US official claimed that the evidence was submitted to the IAEA without knowledge of its provenance and characterized any mistakes as "more likely due to incompetence not malice".
[ edit ] Unmanned Iraqi drones In October 2002, a few days before the US Senate vote on the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution , about 75 senators were told in closed session that the Iraqi government had the means of delivering biological and chemical weapons of mass destruction by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) drones that could be launched from ships off the US' Atlantic coast to attack US eastern seaboard cities . Colin Powell suggested in his presentation to the United Nations that UAVs were transported out of Iraq and could be launched against the US. In fact, Iraq had no offensive UAV fleet or any capability of putting UAVs on ships. [ 87 ] Iraq's UAV fleet consisted of less than a handful of outdated Czech training drones. [ 88 ] At the time, there was a vigorous dispute within the intelligence community whether the CIA's conclusions about Iraq's UAV fleet were accurate. The US Air Force agency denied outright that Iraq possessed any offensive UAV capability. [ 89 ]
[ edit ] Human rights [ editar ] Direitos Humanos As evidence supporting US and British claims about Iraqi WMDs and links to terrorism weakened, some claim supporters of the invasion have increasingly shifted their justification to the human rights violations of the Hussein government . [ 90 ] Leading human rights groups such as Human Rights Watch have argued, however, that they believe human rights concerns were never a central justification for the invasion, nor do they believe that military intervention was justifiable on humanitarian grounds, most significantly because "the killing in Iraq at the time was not of the exceptional nature that would justify such intervention." [ 91 ] Many supporters of the war, however, claim from the start human rights concerns were among the reasons given for the invasion, and that the threat of weapons of mass destruction was emphasized at the United Nations, since this dealt with Iraq flouting UN resolutions. They further claim human rights groups that oppose the war have no objective standard regarding when to invade a country.
[ edit ] Legality of invasion Main article: Legality of the Iraq War
See also: Legitimacy of the 2003 invasion of Iraq , Failed Iraqi peace initiatives , Views on the 2003 invasion of Iraq , and Opposition to the 2003 Iraq War
President George Bush, surrounded by leaders of the House and Senate, announces the Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq , October 2, 2002. O presidente George Bush, cercado por líderes da Câmara e do Senado, anuncia a Resolução Conjunta para autorizar o uso de Forças Armadas dos Estados Unidos contra o Iraque , 02 de outubro de 2002. The Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002 was passed by congress with Republicans voting 98% in favor in the Senate, and 97% in favor in the House. Democrats supported the joint resolution 58% and 39% in the Senate and House respectively. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] The resolution asserts the authorization by the Constitution of the United States and the Congress for the President to fight anti-United States terrorism. Citing the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 , the resolution reiterated that it should be the policy of the United States to remove the Saddam Hussein regime and promote a democratic replacement.
The resolution "supported" and "encouraged" diplomatic efforts by President George W. Bush to "strictly enforce through the UN Security Council all relevant Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq" and "obtain prompt and decisive action by the Security Council to ensure that Iraq abandons its strategy of delay, evasion, and noncompliance and promptly and strictly complies with all relevant Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq." The resolution authorized President Bush to use the Armed Forces of the United States "as he determines to be necessary and appropriate" to "defend the national security of the United States against the continuing threat posed by Iraq; and enforce all relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions regarding Iraq."
The legality of the invasion of Iraq has been challenged since its inception on a number of fronts, and several prominent supporters of the invasion in all the invading nations have publicly and privately cast doubt on its legality. It is claimed that the invasion was fully legal because authorization was implied by the United Nations Security Council . [ 94 ] [ 95 ] International legal experts, including the International Commission of Jurists , a group of 31 leading Canadian law professors, and the US-based Lawyers Committee on Nuclear Policy, have denounced both of these rationales. [ 96 ] [ 97 ] [ 98 ]
On Thursday November 20, 2003, an article published in the Guardian alleged that Richard Perle , a senior member of the administration's Defense Policy Board Advisory Committee , conceded that the invasion was illegal but still justified. [ 99 ] [ 100 ]
The United Nations Security Council has passed nearly 60 resolutions on Iraq and Kuwait since Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990. The most relevant to this issue is Resolution 678 , passed on November 29, 1990. It authorizes "member states co-operating with the Government of Kuwait... to use all necessary means" to (1) implement Security Council Resolution 660 and other resolutions calling for the end of Iraq's occupation of Kuwait and withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwaiti territory and (2) "restore international peace and security in the area." Resolution 678 has not been rescinded or nullified by succeeding resolutions and Iraq was not alleged after 1991 to invade Kuwait or to threaten do so.
Resolution 1441 was most prominent during the run up to the war and formed the main backdrop for Secretary of State Colin Powell 's address to the Security Council one month before the invasion. [ 101 ] According to an independent commission of inquiry set up by the government of the Netherlands, UN resolution 1441 "cannot reasonably be interpreted (as the Dutch government did) as authorising individual member states to use military force to compel Iraq to comply with the Security Council's resolutions." Accordingly, the Dutch commission concluded that the 2003 invasion violated international law. [ 102 ]
President George W. Bush addresses the nation from the Oval Office, March 19, 2003, to announce the beginning of Operation Iraqi Freedom. "The people of the United States and our friends and allies will not live at the mercy of an outlaw regime that threatens the peace with weapons of mass murder." The Senate committee found that many of the administration's pre-war statements about Iraqi WMD were not supported by the underlying intelligence. At the same time, Bush Administration officials advanced a parallel legal argument using the earlier resolutions, which authorized force in response to Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait . Under this reasoning, by failing to disarm and submit to weapons inspections, Iraq was in violation of UN Security Council Resolutions 660 and 678, and the US could legally compel Iraq's compliance through military means.
Critics and proponents of the legal rationale based on the UN resolutions argue that the legal right to determine how to enforce its resolutions lies with the Security Council alone, not with individual nations.
In February 2006, Luis Moreno Ocampo , the lead prosecutor for the International Criminal Court , reported that he had received 240 separate communications regarding the legality of the war, many of which concerned British participation in the invasion. [ 103 ] In a letter addressed to the complainants, Mr. Moreno Ocampo explained that he could only consider issues related to conduct during the war and not to its underlying legality as a possible crime of aggression because no provision had yet been adopted which "defines the crime and sets out the conditions under which the Court may exercise jurisdiction with respect to it." In a March 2007 interview with the Sunday Telegraph , Moreno Ocampo encouraged Iraq to sign up with the court so that it could bring cases related to alleged war crimes. [ 104 ]
United States Ohio Congressman Dennis Kucinich held a press conference on the evening of April 24, 2007, revealing US House Resolution 333 and the three articles of impeachment against Vice President Dick Cheney . He charges Cheney with manipulating the evidence of Iraq's weapons program, deceiving the nation about Iraq's connection to al-Qaeda, and threatening aggression against Iran in violation of the United Nations Charter .
[ edit ] Military aspects United States military operations were conducted under the codename Operation Iraqi Liberation (OIL). [ 105 ] The codename was later changed to Operation Iraqi Freedom , due to the unfortunate acronym . The United Kingdom military operation was named Operation Telic .
[ edit ] Multilateral support In November 2002, President George W. Bush , visiting Europe for a NATO summit, declared that, "should Iraqi President Saddam Hussein choose not to disarm, the United States will lead a coalition of the willing to disarm him." [ 106 ]
Tony Blair (left) and George W. Bush at Camp David in March 2003, during the build-up to the invasion of Iraq . Thereafter, the Bush administration briefly used the term Coalition of the Willing to refer to the countries who supported, militarily or verbally, the military action in Iraq and subsequent military presence in post-invasion Iraq since 2003 . The original list prepared in March 2003 included 49 members. [ 107 ] Of those 49, only six besides the US contributed troops to the invasion force (the United Kingdom , Spain , Australia , Poland , Portugal , and Denmark ), 33 provided some number of troops to support the occupation after the invasion was complete. Six members have no military.
[ edit ] Invasion force This section needs additional citations for verification . Esta seção necessidades adicionais citações para verificação .
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Approximately 148,000 soldiers from the United States , 45,000 British soldiers, 2,000 Australian soldiers and 194 Polish soldiers from Special Forces unit GROM were sent to Kuwait for the invasion. [ 108 ] The invasion force was also supported by Iraqi Kurdish militia troops , estimated to number upwards of 70,000. [ 9 ] In the latter stages of the invasion 620 troops of the Iraqi National Congress opposition group were deployed to southern Iraq. [ 3 ]
A US Central Command, Combined Forces Air Component Commander report, indicated that as of April 30, 2003, there were a total of 466,985 US personnel deployed for Operation Iraqi Freedom. This included USAF, 54,955; USAF Reserve, 2,084; Air National Guard, 7,207; USMC, 74,405; USMC Reserve, 9,501; USN, 61,296 (681 are members of the US Coast Guard); USN Reserve, 2,056; and US Army, 233,342; US Army Reserve, 10,683; and Army National Guard, 8,866. [ 109 ]
Plans for opening a second front in the north were severely hampered when Turkey refused the use of its territory for such purposes. [ 110 ] In response to Turkey's decision, the United States dropped several thousand paratroopers from the 173rd Airborne Brigade into northern Iraq, a number significantly less than the 15,000 strong 4th Mechanized Infantry Division that the US originally planned to use for opening the northern front. [ 111 ]
[ edit ] Preparation [ editar ] Preparação
Kurdish areas in Northern Iraq. CIA Special Activities Division (SAD) Paramilitary teams entered Iraq in July 2002 before the 2003 invasion. Once on the ground they prepared for the subsequent arrival of US military forces. SAD teams then combined with US Army Special Forces to organize the Kurdish Peshmerga . This joint team combined to defeat Ansar al-Islam , an ally of Al Qaida , in a battle in the northeast corner of Iraq. The US side was carried out by Paramilitary Officers from SAD and the Army's 10th Special Forces Group . [ 52 ] [ 53 ] [ 54 ]
SAD teams also conducted high risk special reconnaissance missions behind Iraqi lines to identify senior leadership targets. These missions led to the initial strikes against Saddam Hussein and his key generals. Although the initial strike against Hussein was unsuccessful in killing the dictator, it was successful in effectively ending his ability to command and control his forces. Other strikes against key generals were successful and significantly degraded the command's ability to react to and maneuver against the US-led invasion force coming from the south. [ 52 ] [ 54 ]
SAD operations officers were also successful in convincing key Iraqi Army officers to surrender their units once the fighting started and/or not to oppose the invasion force. [ 53 ] NATO member Turkey refused to allow its territory to be used for the invasion. As a result, the SAD/SOG and US Army Special Forces joint teams and the Kurdish Peshmerga were the entire northern force against government forces during the invasion. Their efforts kept the 5th Corps of the Iraqi army in place to defend against the Kurds rather than their moving to contest the coalition force.
According to General Tommy Franks , April Fool , an American officer working undercover as a diplomat , was approached by an Iraqi intelligence agent . April Fool then sold to the Iraqi false "top secret" invasion plans provided by Franks' team. This decoy deception successfully misled the Iraqi military into deploying major forces in Northern and Western Iraq in anticipation of attacks by way of Turkey or Jordan , which never took place. This greatly reduced the defensive capacity in the rest of Iraq and significantly facilitated the actual attacks via Kuwait and the Persian Gulf in the southeast.
[ edit ] Defending force
T-72 Lion of Babylon tank Asad Babil . The number of personnel in the Iraqi military prior to the war was uncertain, but it was believed to have been poorly equipped. [ 112 ] [ 113 ] [ 114 ] The International Institute for Strategic Studies estimated the Iraqi armed forces to number 538,000 ( Iraqi Army 375,000, Iraqi Navy 2,000, Iraqi Air Force 20,000 and air defense 17,000), the paramilitary Fedayeen Saddam 44,000, Republican Guard 80,000 and reserves 650,000. [ 115 ]
Another estimate numbers the army and Republican Guard at between 280,000 to 350,000 and 50,000 to 80,000, respectively, [ 116 ] and the paramilitary between 20,000 and 40,000. [ 117 ] There were an estimated thirteen infantry divisions, ten mechanized and armored divisions, as well as some special forces units. The Iraqi Air Force and Iraqi Navy played a negligible role in the conflict.
During the invasion, Iraqi forces, along with foreign volunteers from Syria , traveled to Iraq and took part in the fighting, usually under the command of the Saddam Fedayeen . It is not known for certain how many foreign fighters fought in Iraq in 2003, however, intelligence officers of the US First Marine Division estimated that 50% of all Iraqi combatants in central Iraq were foreigners. [ 118 ] [ 119 ]
In addition, the terrorist group Ansar al-Islam controlled a small section of northern Iraq in an area outside of Saddam Hussein's control. Ansar al-Islam had been fighting against Kurdish forces since 2001. At the time of the invasion they fielded approximately 600 to 800 fighters. [ 120 ] Ansar al-Islam was led by the Jordanian-born militant Abu Musab al-Zarqawi , who would later become an important leader in the Iraqi insurgency . Ansar al-Islam was driven out of Iraq in late March by a joint American-Kurdish force during Operation Viking Hammer .
[ edit ] Invasion See also: Invasion of Iraq (2003) order of battle
Routes and major battles fought by invasion force and afterwards Since the 1991 Persian Gulf War , the US and UK had been engaged in low-level attacks on Iraqi air defenses which targeted them while enforcing Iraqi no-fly zones . [ 33 ] [ 34 ] These zones, and the attacks to enforce them, were described as illegal by the former UN Secretary General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali and the then French foreign minister, Hubert Vedrine. Other countries, notably Russia and China, also condemned the zones as a violation of Iraqi sovereignty. [ 121 ] [ 122 ] [ 123 ] In mid-2002, the US began more carefully selecting targets in the southern part of the country to disrupt the military command structure in Iraq. A change in enforcement tactics was acknowledged at the time, but it was not made public that this was part of a plan known as Operation Southern Focus .
The amount of ordnance dropped on Iraqi positions by Coalition aircraft in 2001 and 2002 was less than in 1999 and 2000 which was during the Clinton administration. [ 124 ] This information has been used to attempt to refute the theory that the Bush administration had already decided to go to war against Iraq before coming to office and that the bombing during 2001 and 2002 was laying the groundwork for the eventual invasion in 2003. However, information obtained by the UK Liberal Democrats showed that the UK dropped twice as many bombs on Iraq in the second half of 2002 as they did during the whole of 2001. The tonnage of UK bombs dropped increased from 0 in March 2002 and 0.3 in April 2002 to between 7 and 14 tons per month in May–August, reaching a pre-war peak of 54.6 tons in September – before Congress' October 11 authorization of the invasion .
The September 5 attacks included a 100+ aircraft attack on the main air defense site in western Iraq. According to an editorial in New Statesman this was "Located at the furthest extreme of the southern no-fly zone, far away from the areas that needed to be patrolled to prevent attacks on the Shias, it was destroyed not because it was a threat to the patrols, but to allow allied special forces operating from Jordan to enter Iraq undetected." [ 125 ]
Tommy Franks, who commanded the invasion of Iraq, has since admitted that the bombing was designed to “degrade” Iraqi air defences in the same way as the air attacks that began the 1991 Gulf War. These "spikes of activity" were, in the words of then British Defence Secretary, Geoff Hoon , designed to 'put pressure on the Iraqi regime' or, as The Times reported, to "provoke Saddam Hussein into giving the allies an excuse for war". In this respect, as provocations designed to start a war, leaked British Foreign Office legal advice concluded that such attacks were illegal under international law. [ 126 ] [ 127 ]
Another attempt at provoking the war was mentioned in a leaked memo from a meeting between George W. Bush and Tony Blair on January 31, 2003 at which Bush allegedly told Blair that "The US was thinking of flying U2 reconnaissance aircraft with fighter cover over Iraq, painted in UN colours. If Saddam fired on them, he would be in breach." [ 128 ]
[ edit ] Opening salvo: the Dora Farms strike
An F-117 on a bombing run using GBU-27 laser-guided bombs. The early morning of March 19, 2003, US forces abandoned the plan for initial, non-nuclear decapitation strikes against fifty-five top Iraqi officials, in light of reports that Saddam Hussein was visiting his daughters and sons, Uday and Qusay at Dora Farms, within the al-Dora farming community on the outskirts of Baghdad . [ 129 ] At approximately 05:30 UTC two F-117 Nighthawks from the 8th Expeditionary Fighter Squadron [ 130 ] dropped four enhanced, satellite-guided 2,000-pound GBU-27 ' Bunker Busters ' on the compound. Complementing the aerial bombardment were nearly 40 Tomahawk cruise missiles fired from at least four ships, including the Arleigh Burke class destroyer USS Donald Cook , and two submarines in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf . [ 131 ]
One missed the compound entirely and the other three missed their target landing on the other side of the wall of the palace compound. [ 132 ] Saddam Hussein was not present nor were any members of the Iraqi leadership or Hussein family. [ 129 ] The attack killed one civilian and injured fourteen others, including nine women and one child. [ 133 ] [ 134 ] Later investigation revealed that Saddam Hussein had not visited the farm since 1995. [ 131 ]
[ edit ] Opening attack On March 20, 2003 at approximately 02:30 UTC or about 90 minutes after the lapse of the 48-hour deadline, at 05:33 local time, explosions were heard in Baghdad. Special operations commandos from the CIA's Special Activities Division from the Northern Iraq Liaison Element infiltrated throughout Iraq and called in the early air strikes. [ 52 ] At 03:15 UTC, or 10:15 pm EST, George W. Bush announced that he had ordered an "attack of opportunity" against targets in Iraq. When this word was given, the troops on standby crossed the border into Iraq.
Wingtip vortices are visible trailing from an F-15E as it disengages from midair refueling with a KC-10 during Operation Iraqi Freedom vórtices Wingtip são visíveis à direita de um F-15E como ela se desprenda de reabastecimento em pleno ar com um KC-10 durante a Operação Liberdade do Iraque Before the invasion, many observers had expected a lengthy campaign of aerial bombing before any ground action, taking as examples the 1991 Persian Gulf War or the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan . In practice, US plans envisioned simultaneous air and ground assaults to decapitate the Iraqi forces quickly (see Shock and Awe ), attempting to bypass Iraqi military units and cities in most cases. The assumption was that superior mobility and coordination of Coalition forces would allow them to attack the heart of the Iraqi command structure and destroy it in a short time, and that this would minimize civilian deaths and damage to infrastructure. It was expected that the elimination of the leadership would lead to the collapse of the Iraqi Forces and the government, and that much of the population would support the invaders once the government had been weakened. Occupation of cities and attacks on peripheral military units were viewed as undesirable distractions.
Following Turkey 's decision to deny any official use of its territory, the Coalition was forced to modify the planned simultaneous attack from north and south. [ 135 ] Special Operations forces from the CIA and US Army managed to build and lead the Kurdish Peshmerga into an effective force and assault for the North. The primary bases for the invasion were in Kuwait and other Persian Gulf nations. One result of this was that one of the divisions intended for the invasion was forced to relocate and was unable to take part in the invasion until well into the war. Many observers felt that the Coalition devoted sufficient numbers of troops to the invasion, but too many were withdrawn after it ended, and that the failure to occupy cities put them at a major disadvantage in achieving security and order throughout the country when local support failed to meet expectations.
NASA Landsat 7 image of Baghdad , April 2, 2003. The dark streaks are smoke from oil well fires set in an attempt to hinder attacking air forces. The invasion was swift, leading to the collapse of the Iraqi government and the military of Iraq in about three weeks. The oil infrastructure of Iraq was rapidly seized and secured with limited damage in that time. Securing the oil infrastructure was considered of great importance. In the Persian Gulf War , while retreating from Kuwait, the Iraqi army had set many oil wells on fire, in an attempt to disguise troop movements and to distract Coalition forces. Before the 2003 invasion, Iraqi forces had mined some 400 oil wells around Basra and the Al-Faw peninsula with explosives. Coalition troops launched an air and amphibious assault on the Al-Faw peninsula during the closing hours of March 20 to secure the oil fields there; the amphibious assault was supported by warships of the Royal Navy , Polish Navy , and Royal Australian Navy .
British 3 Commando Brigade , with the United States Marine Corps ' 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit and the Polish Special Forces unit GROM attached, attacked the port of Umm Qasr . There they met with heavy resistance by Iraqi troops. A total of 14 Coalition troops and 30-40 Iraqi troops were killed, and 450 Iraqis taken prisoner. The British Army 's 16 Air Assault Brigade also secured the oil fields in southern Iraq in places like Rumaila while the Polish commandos captured offshore oil platforms near the port, preventing their destruction. Despite the rapid advance of the invasion forces, some 44 oil wells were destroyed and set ablaze by Iraqi explosives or by incidental fire. However, the wells were quickly capped and the fires put out, preventing the ecological damage and loss of oil production capacity that had occurred at the end of the Persian Gulf War .
In keeping with the rapid advance plan, the US 3rd Infantry Division moved westward and then northward through the western desert toward Baghdad, while the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force moved along Highway 1 through the center of the country, and 1 (UK) Armoured Division moved northward through the eastern marshland.
During the first week of the war, Iraqi forces fired a Scud missile at the American Battlefield Update Assessment center in Camp Doha , Kuwait . The missile was intercepted and shot down by a Patriot missile seconds before hitting the complex. Subsequently, two A-10 Warthogs bombed the missile launcher.
[ edit ] Battle of Nasiriyah Main article: Battle of Nasiriyah
Initially, the US 1st Marine Division fought through the Rumaila oil fields, and moved north to Nasiriyah —a moderate-sized, Shi'ite dominated city with important strategic significance as a major road junction and its proximity to nearby Talil Airfield . It was also situated near a number of strategically important bridges over the Euphrates River . The city was defended by a mix of regular Iraqi army units, Ba'ath loyalists, and Fedayeen from both Iraq and abroad. The United States Army 3rd Infantry Division defeated Iraqi forces entrenched in and around the airfield and bypassed the city to the west.
On March 23, a convoy from the 3rd Infantry Division, including the female American soldiers Jessica Lynch and Lori Piestewa , was ambushed after taking a wrong turn into the city. Eleven US soldiers were killed, and seven, including Lynch and Piestewa, were captured. [ 136 ] Piestewa died of wounds shortly after capture, while the remaining five prisoners of war were later rescued. Piestewa, who was from Tuba City , Arizona, and an enrolled member of the Hopi Tribe, was believed to have been the first Native American woman killed in combat in a foreign war.
An American Amphibious fighting vehicle destroyed near Nasiriyah On the same day, US Marines entered Nasiriyah in force, facing heavy resistance as they moved to secure two major bridges in the city. Several Marines were killed during a firefight with Fedayeen in the urban fighting. At the Saddam Canal , another 18 Marines were killed in heavy fighting with Iraqi soldiers. An Air Force A-10 was involved in a case of friendly fire that resulted in the death of six Marines when it accidentally attacked an American amphibious vehicle. Two other vehicles were destroyed when a barrage of RPG and small arms fire killed most of the Marines inside. [ 137 ]
A Marine from Marine Air Control Group 28 was killed by enemy fire, and two Marine engineers drowned in the Saddam Canal. On the evening of March 24, a battalion of the 1st Marine Regiment pushed through Nasiriyah and established a perimeter 15 kilometers (9.3 miles) north of the city. Iraqi reinforcements from Kut launched several counterattacks. The Marines managed to repel them using indirect fire and close air support. The last Iraqi attack was beaten off at dawn. The battalion estimated that 200-300 Iraqi soldiers were killed, without a single American casualty. Nasiriyah was declared secure, but attacks by Iraqi Fedayeen continued. These attacks were uncoordinated, and resulted in firefights in which large numbers of Fedayeen were killed. Because of Nasiriyah's strategic position as a road junction, a significant gridlock occurred as US forces moving north converged on the city's surrounding highways.
A destroyed Iraqi Type 69-QM tank near Nasiriyah hospital With the Nasiriyah and Talil Airfields secured, Coalition forces gained an important logistical center in southern Iraq and established FOB/EAF Jalibah , some 10 miles (16 km) outside of Nasiriyah. Additional troops and supplies were soon brought through this forward operating base. The 101st Airborne Division continued its attack north in support of the 3rd Infantry Division.
By 27 March 28, a severe sand storm slowed the Coalition advance as the 3rd Infantry Division halted its northward drive half way between Najaf and Karbala. As a result of heavy rains that occurred along with the sand storm, orange-colored mud fell on some parts of the invasion force in the area. Air operations by helicopters, poised to bring reinforcements from the 101st Airborne, were blocked for three days. There was particularly heavy fighting in and around the bridge near the town of Kufl.
[ edit ] Battle of Najaf Main article: Battle of Najaf (2003)
The Imām Alī Mosque in Najaf . Another fierce battle was at Najaf , where American Airborne and Armored units with British air support fought a fierce battle with Iraqi Regulars, Republican Guard units, and paramilitary forces. It started with American AH-64 Apache helicopter gunships setting out on a mission to attack Republican Guard armored units, and while flying low, came under heavy anti-aircraft, small arms, and RPG fire which disrupted the attack and led to one of the gunships down and many heavily damaged. [ 138 ] They attacked again successfully on March 26, this time after a pre-mission artillery barrage and with support from F/A-18 Hornet jets, with no gunships lost. [ 139 ]
The 1st Brigade Combat Team's air defense battery moved in and after heavy fighting with entrenched Iraqi Fedayeen seized a strategic bridge in Najaf, known as "Objective Jenkins". They then came under fierce counter attacks by Iraqi forces and Fedayeen, but they failed to dislodge US forces from their positions. After 36 hours of combat at the bridge at Najaf , the Iraqis were defeated, and the key bridge was secured, isolating Najaf from the north. [ 140 ]
The 101st Airborne Division on March 29, supported by a battalion from the 1st Armored Division attacked Iraqi forces in the southern part of the city, near the Imam Ali Mosque and captured Najaf's airfield. [ 141 ] However, four Americans were killed by a suicide bomber . Then on March 31, the 101st launched a attack with a reconnaissance-in-force into Najaf and on April 1, elements of the 70th Armored Regiment launched a "Thunder Run", a armored thrust through Najaf's city center and after several days of heavy fighting and with air support was able to defeat the Iraqi forces, slowly securing the city by April 4. [ 142 ] [ 142 ] The Iraqis had suffered hundreds of casualties during the battle.
[ edit ] Basra Further information: Ali Hassan al-Majid
British soldiers in Iraq . The Iraqi port city of Umm Qasr was the first British obstacle. A joint Polish-British-American force ran into unexpectedly stiff resistance, and it took several days to clear the Iraqi forces out. Fourteen Coalition soldiers and 30 Iraqi soldiers were killed. Farther north, the British 7 Armoured Brigade ('The Desert Rats'), fought their way into Iraq's second-largest city, Basra , on April 6, coming under constant attack by regulars and Fedayeen, while 3rd Battalion, The Parachute Regiment (the British Red Devils ) cleared the 'old quarter' of the city that was inaccessible to vehicles. Entering Basra was achieved after two weeks of fierce fighting, which included the biggest tank battle by British forces since World War II when the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards destroyed 14 Iraqi tanks on 27 March.
Elements of 1 (UK) Armoured Division began to advance north towards US positions around Al Amarah on April 9. Pre-existing electrical and water shortages continued throughout the conflict and looting began as Iraqi forces collapsed. While Coalition forces began working with local Iraqi Police to enforce order, a joint team composed of Royal Engineers and the Royal Logistics Corps of the British Army rapidly set up and repaired dockyard facilities to allow humanitarian aid to begin to arrive from ships arriving in the port city of Umm Qasr .
After a rapid initial advance, the first major pause occurred near Karbala . There, US Army elements met resistance from Iraqi troops defending cities and key bridges along the Euphrates River. These forces threatened to interdict supply routes as American forces moved north. Eventually, troops from the 101st Airborne Division of the US Army secured the cities of Najaf and Karbala to prevent any Iraqi counterattacks on the 3rd Infantry Division's lines of communication as the division pressed its advance toward Baghdad.
A total of 11 British soldiers were killed, while 395-515 Iraqi soldiers, irregulars, and Fedayeen were killed.
[ edit ] Karbala Gap
Destroyed Iraqi T-72 tank on Highway 9 south of Karbala Gap The Karbala Gap was a 20-25-mile wide strip of land with the Euphrates River to the east and Lake Razazah to the west. This strip of land was recognized by Iraqi commanders as a key approach to Baghdad , and was defended by some of the best units of the Iraqi Republican Guard . The Iraqi high command had originally positioned two Republican Guard divisions blocking the Karbala Gap. [ 143 ] Here these forces suffered heavy Coalition air attacks. However, the Coalition had since the beginning of March been conducting a strategic deception operation to convince the Iraqis that the US 4th Infantry Division would be mounting a major assault into northern Iraq from Turkey. [ 144 ]
This deception plan worked, and on April 2 Saddam's son Qusay Hussein declared that the American invasion from the south was a feint and ordered troops to be re-deployed from the Karbala front to the north of Baghdad. Lt. Gen. Raad al-Hamdani, who was in command of the Karbala region, protested this and argued that unless reinforcements were rushed to the Karbala gap immediately to prevent a breach, American troops would reach Baghdad within 48 hours, but his suggestions fell on deaf ears. American troops rushed through the gap and reached the Euphrates River at the town of Musayib. At Musayib, American troops crossed the Euphrates in boats and seized the vital al-Kaed bridge across the Euphrates after Iraqi demolitions teams had failed to destroy it in time.
The 10th Armored Brigade from the Medina Division and the 22nd Armored Brigade from the Nebuchadnezzar Division, supported by artillery, launched night attacks against the American bridgehead at Musayib. The attack was repulsed using tank fire and massed artillery rockets , destroying or disabling every Iraqi tank in the assault. The next morning, Coalition aircraft and helicopters rained death on the Republican Guard units, destroying many more vehicles as well as communications infrastructure. The Republican Guard units broke under the massed firepower and lost any sense of command and cohesion and the American forces poured through gap on to Baghdad
[ edit ] Special operations
The northern front during March and April 2003. The 2nd Battalion of the US 5th Special Forces Group , United States Army Special Forces (Green Berets) conducted reconnaissance in the cities of Basra , Karbala and various other locations.
In the North, the 10th Special Forces Group (10th SFG) and CIA paramilitary officers from their Special Activities Division had the mission of aiding the Kurdish parties, the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan and the Kurdistan Democratic Party , de facto rulers of Iraqi Kurdistan since 1991, and employing them against the 13 Iraqi Divisions located near Kirkuk and Mosul. Turkey had officially prohibited any Coalition troops from using their bases or airspace, so lead elements of the 10th SFG had to make a detour infiltration; their flight was supposed to take four hours but instead took ten.
Hours after the first of such flights, Turkey did allow the use of its air space and the rest of the 10th SFG infiltrated in. The preliminary mission was to destroy the base of the Kurdish terrorist group Ansar al-Islam , believed to be linked to Al Qaeda. Concurrent and follow-on missions involved attacking and fixing Iraqi forces in the north, thus preventing their deployment to the southern front and the main effort of the invasion.
On March 26, 2003, the 173rd Airborne Brigade augmented the invasion's northern front by parachuting into northern Iraq onto Bashur Airfield, controlled at the time by elements of 10th SFG and Kurdish peshmerga. The fall of Kirkuk on April 10, 2003 to the 10th SFG, CIA Paramilitary Teams and Kurdish peshmerga precipitated the 173rd's planned assault, preventing the unit's involvement in combat against Iraqi forces during the invasion.
The successful occupation of Kirkuk came as a result of approximately two weeks of fighting that included the Battle of the Green Line (the unofficial border of the Kurdish autonomous zone) and the subsequent Battle of Kani Domlan Ridge (the ridgeline running northwest to southeast of Kirkuk), the latter fought exclusively by 3rd Battalion, 10th SFG and Kurdish peshmerga against the Iraqi I Corps. The 173rd Brigade would eventually take responsibility for Kirkuk days later, becoming involved in the counterinsurgency fight and remain there until redeploying a year later.
Further reinforcing operations in Northern Iraq, the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (Special Operations Capable), serving as Landing Force Sixth Fleet, deployed in April to Erbil and subsequently Mosul via Marine KC-130 flights. The 26 MEU(SOC) maintained security of the Mosul airfield and surrounding area until relief by the 101st Airborne Division.
After Sargat was taken, Bravo Company, 3rd Battalion, 10th SFG and CIA paramilitary officers along with their Kurdish allies pushed south towards Tikrit and the surrounding towns of Northern Iraq. Previously, during the Battle of the Green Line, Bravo Company, 3/10 with their Kurdish allies pushed back, destroyed, or routed the 13th Iraqi Infantry Division. The same company took Tikrit. Iraq was the largest deployment of Special Forces since Vietnam.
[ edit ] Fall of Baghdad (April 2003) Main article: Battle of Baghdad (2003)
A T72 Asad Babil abandoned after facing the final US thrust into Baghdad.
An American M1 Abrams tank destroyed in Baghdad.
Marines from 1st Battalion 7th Marines enter a palace during the Battle of Baghdad . Three weeks into the invasion, US-led Coalition forces moved into Baghdad . Units of the Iraqi Special Republican Guard led the defence of the city. The rest of the defenders were a mixture of Republican Guard units, Regular army units, Iraqi Fedayeen, and non-Iraqi Arab volunteers. Initial plans were for Coalition units to surround the city and gradually move in, forcing Iraqi armor and ground units to cluster into a central pocket in the city, and then attack with air and artillery forces.
This plan soon became unnecessary, as an initial engagement of armored units south of the city saw most of the Republican Guard's assets destroyed and routes in the southern outskirts of the city occupied. On April 5 Task Force 1-64 Armor of the US Army's Third Infantry Division executed a raid, later called the "Thunder Run", to test remaining Iraqi defenses, with 29 tanks and 14 Bradley Armored Fighting Vehicles advancing to the Baghdad airport .
They met heavy resistance, [ citation needed ] but were successful in reaching the airport. US troops faced heavy fighting in the airport, and were even temporarily pushed out, but eventually secured the airport. The next day, another brigade of the 3rd ID attacked into downtown Baghdad and occupied one of the palaces of Saddam Hussein in fierce fighting. US Marines also faced heavy shelling from Iraqi artillery as they attempted to cross a river bridge. The Iraqi commander directed the fire, and one shell from an Iraqi gun killed or wounded four Marines, but the river crossing was successful. The Iraqis managed to inflict some casualties on the American forces near the airport from defensive positions but suffered severe casualties from air bombardment.
Within hours of the palace seizure and with television coverage of this spreading through Iraq, US forces ordered Iraqi forces within Baghdad to surrender, or the city would face a full-scale assault. Iraqi government officials had either disappeared or had conceded defeat, and on April 9, 2003, Baghdad was formally occupied by Coalition forces. Much of Baghdad remained unsecured however, and fighting continued within the city and its outskirts well into the period of occupation. Saddam had vanished, and his whereabouts were unknown.
The April 2003 toppling of Saddam Hussein 's statue in Firdos Square in Baghdad shortly after the capture of the city .
Saddam Hussein, walking in an area of Baghdad on the same day of the fall of the statue. On April 10, a rumor emerged that Saddam Hussein and his top aides were in a mosque complex in the Al Az'Amiyah District of Baghdad. Three Companies of Marines were sent to capture him. The Marines came under heavy fire from rocket-propelled grenades, mortars, and assault rifles. One Marine was killed and 20 were wounded, but neither Saddam or any of his top aides were found.
US forces supported by mortars, artillery, and aircraft continued to attack Iraqi forces still loyal to Saddam Hussein and non-Iraqi Arab volunteers. US aircraft flying in support were met with Iraqi anti-aircraft fire. On April 12, the final resistance to US forces was mounted. One Marine was killed, but by late afternoon, all fighting had ceased. A total of 34 US soldiers and 2,320 Iraqi soldiers and Fedayeen were killed.
Many Iraqis celebrated the downfall of Saddam by vandalizing the many portraits and statues of him together with other pieces of his cult of personality . One widely publicized event was the dramatic toppling of a large statue of Saddam in Baghdad's Fardus Square. This attracted considerable media coverage at the time. As the British Daily Mirror reported,
"For an oppressed people this final act in the fading daylight, the wrenching down of this ghastly symbol of the regime, is their Berlin Wall moment. Big Moustache has had his day." [ 145 ]
As Staff Sergeant Brian Plesich reported in On Point: The United States Army in Operation Iraqi Freedom ,
"The Marine Corps colonel in the area saw the Saddam statue as a target of opportunity and decided that the statue must come down. Since we were right there, we chimed in with some loudspeaker support to let the Iraqis know what it was we were attempting to do..." "Somehow along the way, somebody had gotten the idea to put a bunch of Iraqi kids onto the wrecker that was to pull the statue down. While the wrecker was pulling the statue down, there were Iraqi children crawling all over it. Finally they brought the statue down" [ 146 ]
The fall of Baghdad saw the outbreak of regional, sectarian violence throughout the country, as Iraqi tribes and cities began to fight each other over old grudges. The Iraqi cities of Al-Kut and Nasiriyah launched attacks on each other immediately following the fall of Baghdad to establish dominance in the new country, and the US-led Coalition quickly found themselves embroiled in a potential civil war. US-led Coalition forces ordered the cities to cease hostilities immediately, explaining that Baghdad would remain the capital of the new Iraqi government. Nasiriyah responded favorably and quickly backed down; however, Al-Kut placed snipers on the main roadways into town, with orders that invading forces were not to enter the city. After several minor skirmishes, the snipers were removed, but tensions and violence between regional, city, tribal, and familial groups continued.
Saddam Hussein being pulled from his hideaway in Operation Red Dawn , 13 December 2003 US General Tommy Franks assumed control of Iraq as the supreme commander of the coalition occupation forces. Shortly after the sudden collapse of the defense of Baghdad, rumors were circulating in Iraq and elsewhere that there had been a deal struck (a "safqua") wherein the US-led Coalition had bribed key members of the Iraqi military elite and/or the Ba'ath party itself to stand down. In May 2003, General Franks retired, and confirmed in an interview with Defense Week that the US-led Coalition had paid Iraqi military leaders to defect. The extent of the defections and their effect on the war are unclear.
US-led Coalition troops promptly began searching for the key members of Saddam Hussein's government. These individuals were identified by a variety of means, most famously through sets of most-wanted Iraqi playing cards .
On July 22, 2003 during a raid by the US 101st Airborne Division and men from Task Force 20 , Saddam Hussein's sons Uday and Qusay , and one of his grandsons were killed in a massive fire-fight.
Saddam Hussein was captured on December 13, 2003 by the US Army's 4th Infantry Division and members of Task Force 121 during Operation Red Dawn .
[ edit ] Other areas [ editar ] Outras áreas In the north, Kurdish forces opposed to Saddam Hussein had already occupied for years an autonomous area in northern Iraq. With the assistance of US Special Forces and air strikes, they were able to rout the Iraqi units near them and to occupy oil-rich Kirkuk on April 10.
US special forces had also been involved in the extreme south of Iraq, attempting to occupy key roads to Syria and airbases. In one case two armored platoons were used to convince Iraqi leadership that an entire armored battalion was entrenched in the west of Iraq.
On April 15, US forces took control of Tikrit , the last major outpost in central Iraq, with an attack led by the Marines' Task Force Tripoli . About a week later the Marines were relieved in place by the Army's 4th Infantry Division .
M1A1 Abrams pose for a photo under the " Hands of Victory " in Ceremony Square, Baghdad, Iraq .
US Marine Corps M1A1 in Iraq, 2003.
A group of destroyed Iraqi tanks.
A Marine Corps M1 Abrams tank patrols a Baghdad street after its fall in 2003 during Operation Iraqi Freedom. A Marine Corps M1 Abrams patrulhas tanque de uma rua de Bagdá depois de sua queda em 2003, durante a Operação Liberdade Iraquiana.
[ edit ] Coalition and Allied contingent involvement
Dispositions of US and allied units in the different occupation zones on April 30, 2004 Members of the Coalition included Australia: 2,000 invasion, Poland: 200 invasion—2,500 peak, United Kingdom: 46,000 invasion, United States: 150,000 to 250,000 invasion
[ edit ] United Kingdom [ editar ] Reino Unido Main article: Operation Telic
British troops, in what was codenamed Operation (or Op) TELIC participated in the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. The 1st Armoured Division was deployed to the Gulf and commanded British forces in the area, securing areas in southern Iraq, including the city of Basra during the invasion. A total of 46,000 troops of all the British Services were committed to the operation at its start. Including were some 5,000 Royal Navy and Royal Fleet Auxiliary sailors and 4,000 Royal Marines , 26,000 British Army soldiers, and 8,100 Royal Air Force airmen.
[ edit ] Polish [ editar ] Polonês
Polish GROM troops on alert immediately after the ports capture during the Battle of Umm Qasr . The Battle of Umm Qasr was the first military confrontation in the Iraq War , with its objective the capture of the port. Polish GROM troops supported the amphibious assault on Umm Qasrby with the British 3 Commando Brigade of the Royal Marines , and the US 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit . [ 147 ] After the waterway was de-mined by a Detachment from HM-14 and Naval Special Clearance Team ONE of the US Navy and reopened, Umm Qasr played an important role in the shipment of humanitarian supplies to Iraqi civilians. [ 148 ]
[ edit ] Australia [ editar ] Austrália Main article: Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq
Australia contributed approximately 2,000 Australian Defence Force personnel, including a special forces task group, three warships and 14 F/A-18 Hornet aircraft. [ 149 ]
[ edit ] Summary of the invasion
Aircraft of the USAF 379th Air Expeditionary Wing and UK and Australian counterparts stationed together at Al Udeid Air Base , Qatar , in southwest Asia, fly over the desert on April 14, 2003. Aircraft include KC-135 Stratotanker , F-15E Strike Eagle , F-117 Nighthawk , F-16CJ Falcon , British GR-4 Tornado , and Australian F/A-18 Hornet . The US-led Coalition forces toppled the government and captured the key cities of a large nation in only 21 days. The invasion did require a large army build-up like the 1991 Gulf War, but many didn't see combat and many were withdrawn after the invasion ended. This proved to be short-sighted, however, due to the requirement for a much larger force to combat the irregular Iraqi forces in the aftermath of the war . General Eric Shinseki , Army Chief of Staff, recommended "several hundred thousand" [ 150 ] troops be used to maintain post-war order, but then Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld —and especially his deputy, civilian Paul Wolfowitz —strongly disagreed. General Abizaid later said General Shinseki had been right. [ 151 ]
The Iraqi army, armed mainly with Soviet-built equipment, was overall ill-equipped in comparison to the US and UK forces. Attacks on US supply routes by Fedayeen militiamen were repulsed. The Iraqis' artillery proved largely ineffective, and they were unable to mobilize their air force to attempt a defense. The Iraqi T-72 tanks, the heaviest armored vehicles in the Iraqi Army, were both outdated and ill-maintained, and when they were mobilized they were rapidly destroyed, thanks in part to US and UK air supremacy . The US Air Force , Marine Corps, Naval Aviation, and British Royal Air Force operated with impunity throughout the country, pinpointing heavily defended resistance targets and destroying them before ground troops arrived.
The main battle tanks (MBT) of the US and UK forces, the US M1 Abrams and British Challenger 2 , proved worthy in the rapid advance across the country. With the large number of rocket propelled grenade (RPG) attacks by irregular Iraqi forces, few US and UK tanks were lost and no tank crew were killed by hostile fire. The only tank loss sustained by the British Army was a Challenger 2 of the Queen's Royal Lancers that was hit by another Challenger 2, killing two crew members. All three British tank crew fatalities were a result of friendly fire .
The Iraqi Army suffered from poor morale, even amongst the elite Republican Guard. Entire units disbanded into the crowds upon the approach of invading troops, or actually sought out US and UK forces out to surrender. In one case, a force of roughly 20–30 Iraqis attempted to surrender to a two-man vehicle repair and recovery team, invoking similar instances of Iraqis surrendering to news crews during the Persian Gulf War . [ dubious – discuss ] Other Iraqi Army officers were bribed by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) or coerced into surrendering.
Worse, the Iraqi Army had incompetent leadership – reports state that Qusay Hussein , charged with the defense of Baghdad , dramatically shifted the positions of the two main divisions protecting Baghdad several times in the days before the arrival of US forces, and as a result the units within were both confused and further demoralized when US Army forces attacked. The invasion force did not see the entire Iraqi military thrown against it; US and UK units had orders to move to and seize objective target-points rather than seek engagements with Iraqi units. This resulted in most regular Iraqi military units emerging from the war fully intact and without ever having been engaged by US forces, especially in southern Iraq. It is assumed that most units disintegrated to either join the growing Iraqi insurgency or returned to their homes.
Saddam shortly after capture by American forces , and after being shaved to confirm his identity
According to the declassified Pentagon report, "The largest contributing factor to the complete defeat of Iraq's military forces was the continued interference by Saddam." The report, designed to help US officials understand in hindsight how Saddam and his military commanders prepared for and fought the invasion, paints a picture of an Iraqi government blind to the threat it faced, hampered by Saddam's inept military leadership and deceived by its own propaganda and inability to believe the United States would invade a sovereign country without provocation. According to the BBC, the report portrays Saddam Hussein as "chronically out of touch with reality - preoccupied with the prevention of domestic unrest and with the threat posed by Iran." [ 152 ]
[ edit ] Security, looting and war damage Looting took place in the days following the 2003 invasion. Saques ocorreram no dia seguinte à invasão de 2003.
It was reported that the National Museum of Iraq was among the looted sites. Most initial news reports were that 100 percent of the museum's artifacts had been removed by looters. In fact, no more than 3 percent of its contents were removed by thieves [ citation needed ] .
An assertion that US forces did not guard the museum because they were guarding the Ministry of Oil and Ministry of Interior is disputed by investigator Colonel Matthew Bogdanos in his 2005 book, "Thieves of Baghdad." Bogdanos notes that the Ministry of Oil building was bombed, but the museum complex, which took some fire, was not bombed. He also writes that Saddam Hussein's troops set up sniper's nests inside and on top of the museum, and nevertheless US Marines and soldiers stayed close enough to prevent wholesale looting.
A tank guarding the National Museum of Iraq following the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Early on, US officials reacted defensively to the first, false news reports of 100 percent looting [ citation needed ] . According to US officials, the "reality of the situation on the ground" was that hospitals, water plants, and ministries with vital intelligence needed security more than other sites. There were only enough US troops on the ground to guard a certain number of the many sites that ideally needed protection, and so, apparently, some "hard choices" were made.
The FBI was soon called into Iraq to track down the stolen items. It was found that the initial claims of looting of substantial portions of the collection were heavily exaggerated. Initial reports claimed a near-total looting of the museum, estimated at upwards of 170,000 inventory lots, or about 501,000 pieces. The most recent estimate places the number of stolen pieces at around 15,000, and about 10,000 of them probably were taken in an "inside job" before US troops arrived, according to Bogdanos. Over 5,000 looted items have since been recovered. [ 153 ]
There has been speculation that some objects still missing were not taken by looters during the invasion, but were taken by Saddam Hussein or his government before or during the fighting. [ citation needed ] There have also been reports that early looters had keys to vaults that held rarer pieces, and some have speculated as to the pre-meditated systematic removal of key artifacts. [ citation needed ]
The National Museum of Iraq was only one of many museums and sites of cultural significance that were affected by the war. Many in the arts and antiquities communities briefed policy makers before the need to secure Iraqi museums. Despite the looting being lighter than initially feared, the cultural loss of items from ancient Sumer is significant. [ citation needed ]
More serious for the post-war state of Iraq was the looting of cached weaponry and ordnance which fueled the subsequent insurgency . As many as 250,000 tons of explosives were unaccounted for by October 2004. [ 154 ] Disputes within the US Defense Department led to delays in the post-invasion assessment and protection of Iraqi nuclear facilities. Tuwaitha , the Iraqi site most scrutinized by UN inspectors since 1991, was left unguarded and was looted. [ 155 ] [ 156 ]
Zainab Bahrani , professor of Ancient Near Eastern Art History and Archaeology at Columbia University , reported that a helicopter landing pad was constructed in the heart of the ancient city of Babylon , and "removed layers of archeological earth from the site. The daily flights of the helicopters rattle the ancient walls and the winds created by their rotors blast sand against the fragile bricks. When my colleague at the site, Maryam Moussa, and I asked military personnel in charge that the helipad be shut down, the response was that it had to remain open for security reasons, for the safety of the troops." [ 157 ]
Bahrani also reported that in the summer of 2004, "the wall of the Temple of Nabu and the roof of the Temple of Ninmah, both sixth century BC, collapsed as a result of the movement of helicopters." [ 157 ] Electrical power is scarce in post-war Iraq, Bahrani reported, and some fragile artifacts, including the Ottoman Archive, would not survive the loss of refrigeration. [ 157 ]
[ edit ] Bush declares "End of major combat operations" (May 2003)
The USS Abraham Lincoln returning to port carrying its Mission Accomplished banner
George W. Bush on the Abraham Lincoln wearing a flight suit after landing on the aircraft carrier in a military jet.
On May 1, 2003, Bush landed on the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln , in a Lockheed S-3 Viking , where he gave a speech announcing the end of major combat operations in the Iraq war. Bush's landing was criticized by opponents as an unnecessarily theatrical and expensive stunt. Clearly visible in the background was a banner stating "Mission Accomplished." The banner, made by White House staff and supplied by request of the United States Navy, [ 158 ] was criticized as premature. The White House subsequently released a statement that the sign and Bush's visit referred to the initial invasion of Iraq and disputing the claim of theatrics. The speech itself noted: "We have difficult work to do in Iraq. We are bringing order to parts of that country that remain dangerous." [ 159 ]
Post-invasion Iraq has been marked by violent conflict between US-led soldiers and insurgents . The ongoing resistance in Iraq was concentrated in, but not limited to, an area referred to as the Sunni triangle and Baghdad. [ 160 ]
This resistance may be described as guerrilla warfare . The tactics in use were to include mortars, suicide bombers, roadside bombs, small arms fire, improvised explosive devices (IED's), and handheld antitank grenade-launchers (RPG's), as well as sabotage against the oil infrastructure. There were also attacks toward the power and water infrastructure.
There is evidence that some of the resistance was organized, perhaps by the fedayeen and other Saddam Hussein or Ba'ath loyalists, religious radicals, Iraqis angered by the occupation, and foreign fighters. [ 161 ]
[ edit ] Casualties [ editar ] Acidentes Main articles: Casualties in the conflict in Iraq , Humanitarian Crises of the Iraq War , and Refugees of Iraq
[ edit ] Death toll [ editar ] Número de mortos
A US Navy (USN) Hospital Corpsman and Iraqi doctor, provide medical aid to an Iraqi civilian, injured during fighting near Umm Qasr, Iraq, in March 2003. While estimates on the number of casualties during the invasion in Iraq vary widely, the majority of deaths and injuries have occurred after US President Bush declared the end of "major combat operations" on May 1, 2003. [ 162 ] According to CNN , the US government reported that 139 American military personnel were killed before May 1, 2003, while over 4,000 have been killed since 2003. [ 162 ] Estimates on civilian casualties are more variable than those for military personnel. According to Iraq Body Count , a group that relies on press reports, NGO-based reports and official figures to measure civilian casualties, approximately 7,500 civilians were killed during the invasion phase, while more than 60,000 civilians have been killed as of April 2007. [ 163 ]
In November 2006 Iraq's Health Minister Ali al-Shemari said that since the March 2003 invasion between 100,000 and 150,000 Iraqis have been killed. [ 164 ] Al-Shemari based his figure on an estimate of 100 bodies per day brought to morgues and hospitals – such a calculation would come out closer to 130,000 in total. [ 165 ]
The Lancet surveys of casualties of the Iraq War , conducted by researchers at Johns Hopkins University , estimates much higher civilian casualties, but does not differentiate between the invasion phase (March–May 2003) and the occupation phase (post May 2003). The Lancet survey estimates that over 650,000 Iraqis have died as a result of the conflict, with the vast majority of these deaths occurring after May 2003. [ 166 ] These studies were highly controversial at their time of publication, attracting considerable criticism.
On January 9, 2008, the World Health Organization reported the results of the Iraq Family Health Survey published in The New England Journal of Medicine . [ 167 ] The study surveyed 9,345 households across Iraq and estimated 151,000 deaths due to violence (95% uncertainty range, 104,000 to 223,000) from March 2003 through June 2006. Employees of the Iraqi Health Ministry carried out the survey. [ 168 ] [ 169 ] [ 170 ]
A September 14, 2007 estimate by ORB (Opinion Research Business), an independent British polling agency, suggests that the total Iraqi violent death toll due to the Iraq War since the US-led invasion is more than 1.2 million (1,220,580). Although higher than the 2006 Lancet estimate , these results, which were based on a survey of 1499 adults in Iraq from August 12–19, 2007, are reasonably consistent with the figures that were published in the Lancet study. [ 171 ] [ 172 ] [ 173 ] [ 174 ]
On January 28, 2008, ORB published an update based on additional work carried out in rural areas of Iraq. Some 600 additional interviews were undertaken and as a result of this the death estimate was revised to 1,033,000 with a given range of 946,000 to 1,120,000. [ 175 ]
[ edit ] Iraqi refugees
Iraqis fleeing to neighboring countries. Over 4.2 million Iraqis, more than 16% of the Iraqi population, have lost their homes and become refugees since 2003. As of June 21, 2007, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimated that 2.2 million Iraqis had been displaced to neighboring countries, and 2 million were displaced internally, with nearly 100,000 Iraqis fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month. [ 176 ] [ 177 ] Roughly 40% of Iraq's middle class is believed to have fled, the UN said. Most are fleeing systematic persecution and have no desire to return. All kinds of people, from university professors to bakers, have been targeted by militias , insurgents and criminals. Approximately 331 school teachers were slain in the first four months of 2006, according to Human Rights Watch, and at least 2,000 Iraqi doctors have been killed and 250 kidnapped since the 2003 US invasion. [ 178 ] [ 179 ] [ 180 ]
The UN reports that although Christians comprise less than 5% of Iraq's population, they make up nearly 40% of the refugees fleeing Iraq. [ 181 ] [ 182 ] More than 50% of Iraqi Christians have already left the country. [ 183 ] In 1987, the last Iraqi census counted 1.4 million Christians. [ 184 ] But as the war has radicalized Islamic sensibilities, Christians' total numbers slumped to about 500,000, of whom 250,000 live in Baghdad . [ 185 ] [ 186 ] Furthermore, the Mandaean and Yazidi communities are at the risk of elimination due to ethnic cleansing by Islamic extremists. [ 187 ] [ 188 ] As many as 110,000 Iraqis could be targeted as collaborators because of their work for coalition forces. [ 189 ]
A May 25, 2007 article noted that in the previous seven months, only 69 people from Iraq had been granted refugee status in the United States . [ 190 ]
[ edit ] War Crimes See also: The International Criminal Court and the 2003 invasion of Iraq
After the ambush of the 507th Maintenance Company during the battle of Nasiriyah on March 23, the bodies of several American soldiers who had been killed in the ambush were shown on Iraqi television. Some of these soldiers had visible gunshot wounds to head, leading to speculation that they had been executed. Except for Sgt. Donald Walters , no evidence has since surfaced to support this scenario and it is generally accepted that the soldiers were killed in action. Five live prisoners of war were also interviewed on the air, a violation of the Geneva Conventions . [ 191 ] [ 192 ]
Sergeant Donald Walters was initially reported to have been killed in the March 23 ambush of the 507th Maintenance Company after killing several Fedayeen before running out of ammunition. However, an eyewitness later reported that he had seen Walters being guarded by several Fedayeen in front of a building. Forensics work later found Walters' blood in front of the building and blood spatter suggesting he died from two gunshot wounds to the back at close range. This led the Army to conclude that Walters had been executed after being captured, and he was posthumously awarded the Prisoner of War Medal in 2004. [ 193 ] [ 194 ]
It was alleged in the authorized biography of Pfc. Jessica Lynch that she was raped by her captors after her capture as part of the 507th Maintenance Company , based on medical reports and the pattern of her injuries, though this is not supported by Ms Lynch. [ 195 ] Mohammed Odeh al-Rehaief , who later helped American forces rescue Lynch, stated that he saw an Iraqi Colonel slap Lynch while she was in her hospital bed. [ 196 ] The staff at the hospital where Lynch was held later denied both stories, saying that Lynch was well cared for. [ 197 ] While Lynch suffers from amnesia due to her injuries, Lynch herself has denied any mistreatment whilst in captivity.
Also on March 23, a British Army engineering unit made a wrong turn near the town of Az Zubayr , which was still held by Iraqi forces. The unit was ambushed and Sapper Luke Allsopp and Staff Sergeant Simon Cullingworth became separated from the rest. Both were captured and executed by Iraqi irregular forces. In 2006, a video of Allsopp lying on the ground surrounded by Iraqi irregular forces was discovered. [ 198 ]
Marine Sergeant Fernando Padilla-Ramirez was reported missing from his supply unit after an ambush north of Nasiriyah on March 28. His body was later dragged through the streets of Ash-Shatrah and hung in the town square. His body was later taken down and buried by sympathetic locals. His body was discovered by American forces on April 10. [ 199 ] [ 200 ] [ 201 ]
During the Battle of Nasiriyah , there was an incident where Iraqi irregulars feigned surrender to approach an American Marine unit securing a bridge. After getting close to the Marines, the Iraqis suddenly opened fire, killing 10 Marines and wounding 40. [ 202 ] In response, American forces reinforced security procedures for dealing with prisoners of war. [ 203 ]
On March 30, soldiers from the British Royal Scots Dragoon Guards reported that they had observed Fedayeen fighters using children as human shields in the village of Kuj Al Mum. On March 31, Iraqi Republican Guard units were reported to be using women as human shields outside of Hindiyah. [ 202 ] Many other incidents of Fedayeen fighters using human shields were reported from various towns in Iraq. [ 204 ]
Some reports indicate that the Fedayeen used ambulances to deliver messages and transport fighters into combat. On March 31, Fedayeen forces in a Red Crescent marked ambulance attacked American soldiers outside of Nasiriyah, wounding 3. [ 202 ] [ 205 ]
During the Battle of Basra , British forces of the Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) reported that on March 28, Fedayeen forces opened fire on thousands of civilian refugees fleeing the city, wounding several people. [ 206 ] [ 207 ]
Fedayeen and Republican Guard forces were reported to have executed Iraqi soldiers who tried to surrender on multiple occasions, as well as threatening the families of those who refused to fight. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] One such incident was directly observed during the Battle of Debecka Pass . [ 211 ]
[ edit ] Media coverage [ editar ] Cobertura da imprensa Main article: 2003 invasion of Iraq media coverage
[ edit ] US media coverage The US invasion of Iraq was the most widely and closely reported war in military history. [ 212 ] Television network coverage was largely pro-war and viewers were six times more likely to see a pro-war source as one who was anti-war. [ 213 ] The New York Times ran a number of articles describing Saddam Hussein's attempts to build weapons of mass destruction. The September 8, 2002 article titled "US Says Hussein Intensifies Quest for A-Bomb Parts" would be discredited, leading the New York Times to issue a public statement admitting it was not as rigorous as it should have been. [ 214 ]
At the start of the war in March 2003, as many as 775 reporters and photographers were traveling as embedded journalists . [ 215 ] These reporters signed contracts with the military that limited what they were allowed to report on. [ 216 ] When asked why the military decided to embed journalists with the troops, Lt. Col. Rick Long of the US Marine Corps replied, “Frankly, our job is to win the war. Part of that is information warfare . So we are going to attempt to dominate the information environment.” [ 217 ]
A September 2003 poll revealed that seventy percent of Americans believed there was a link between Saddam Hussein and the attacks of 9/11. [ 218 ] 80% of Fox News viewers were found to hold at least one such belief about the invasion, compared to 23% of PBS viewers. [ 219 ] Ted Turner , founder of CNN , claimed that Rupert Murdoch was using Fox News to advocate an invasion. [ 220 ] Critics have argued that this statistic is indicative of misleading coverage by the US media since viewers in other countries were less likely to have these beliefs. [ 221 ] A post-2008 election poll by FactCheck.org found that 48% of Americans believe Hussein played a role in the 9/11 attacks, the group concluded that "voters, once deceived, tend to stay that way despite all evidence." [ 222 ]
[ edit ] Independent media coverage Independent media also played a prominent role in covering the invasion. The Indymedia network, among many other independent networks including many journalists from the invading countries, provided reports in a way difficult to control by any government, corporation or political party. In the United States Democracy Now , hosted by Amy Goodman has been critical of the reasons for the 2003 invasion and the alleged crimes committed by the US authorities in Iraq.
On the other side, among media not opposing to the invasion, The Economist stated in an article on the matter that "the normal diplomatic tools—sanctions, persuasion, pressure, UN resolutions—have all been tried, during 12 deadly but failed years" then giving a mild conditional support to the war stating that "if Mr Hussein refuses to disarm, it would be right to go to war". [ 223 ]
Australian war artist George Gittoes collected independent interviews with soldiers while producing his documentary Soundtrack To War . The war in Iraq provided the first time in history that military on the front lines were able to provide direct, uncensored reportage themselves, thanks to blogging software and the reach of the internet . Dozens of such reporting sites, known as soldier blogs or milblogs, were started during the war. These blogs were more often than not largely pro-war and stated various reasons why the soldiers and Marines felt they were doing the right thing. [ 224 ]
[ edit ] International media coverage International coverage of the war differed from coverage in the US in a number of ways. The Arab-language news channel Al Jazeera and the German Satellite channel Deutsche Welle featured almost twice as much information on the political background of the war. [ 225 ] Al Jazeera also showed scenes of civilian casualties which were rarely seen in the US
[ edit ] Criticism [ editar ] Crítica Main article: Criticism of the Iraq War
Opponents of military intervention in Iraq have attacked the decision to invade Iraq along a number of lines, including calling into question the evidence used to justify the war, arguing for continued diplomacy, challenging the war's legality , suggesting that the US had other more pressing security priorities, (ie Afghanistan and North Korea ) and predicting that the war would destabilize the Middle East region. The breadth and depth of the criticism was particularly notable in comparison with the first Gulf War , which met with considerably less domestic and international opposition, although the geopolitical situation had evolved since the last decade. Others criticize the war in Iraq, actually invoking the word "terrorism" in an attempt to parallel the perceived violences in the US (9/11) to what Iraqis experienced daily during 2003 and thereafter. Particular to many criticisms is the perceived colonial impetus to erase certain histories while imposing others, perhaps best demonstrated by the US led coalition's destruction of every mural and statue of Saddam Hussein to the October 2003 installation of the new dinar, erasing the face of Saddam Hussein and putting on the new currency Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham, 10th century mathematician and scientist. [ 226 ]
[ edit ] Rationale based on faulty evidence The central US justification for launching the Iraq War was that Saddam Hussein's alleged development of nuclear and biological weapons and purported ties to al-Qaeda made his regime a "grave and growing" [ 227 ] threat to the United States and the world community. [ 228 ] During the lead-up to the war and the aftermath of the invasion, critics cast doubt on the evidence supporting this rationale. Concerning Iraq's weapons programs, prominent critics included Scott Ritter , a former UN weapons inspector who argued in 2002 that inspections had eliminated the nuclear and chemical weapons programs, and that evidence of their reconstitution would “have been eminently detectable by intelligence services ….” Although it is popularly believed that Saddam Hussein had forced the IAEA weapons inspectors to leave Iraq, they were in fact withdrawn at the request of US Ambassador Peter Burleigh in advance of Operation Desert Fox , the 1998 American bombing campaign. After the build-up of US troops in neighboring states, Hussein welcomed them back and promised complete cooperation with their demands. Experienced IAEA inspection teams were already back in Iraq and had made some interim reports on its search for various forms of WMD. [ 229 ] [ 230 ] [ 231 ] [ 232 ] [ 233 ] Joseph C. Wilson , an American diplomat investigated claims that Iraq had sought uranium for nuclear weapons in Niger and reported that they had no substance. [ 234 ] [ 235 ]
Similarly, alleged links between Iraq and al-Qaeda were called into question during the lead up to the war, and were discredited by an October 21, 2004 report from US Senator Carl Levin , which was later corroborated by an April 2006 report from the Defense Department's inspector general. [ 236 ] These reports further alleged that Bush Administration officials, particularly former undersecretary of defense Douglas J. Feith , manipulated evidence to support links between al-Qaeda and Iraq. [ 237 ]
[ edit ] Lack of a UN mandate One of the main questions in the lead-up to the war was whether the United Nations Security Council would authorize military intervention in Iraq. When it became increasingly clear that UN authorization would require significant further weapons inspections, and that the US and the UK planned to invade Iraq regardless, many criticized their effort as unwise, immoral, and illegal. Robin Cook , then the leader of the United Kingdom House of Commons and a former foreign secretary, resigned from Tony Blair's cabinet in protest over the UK's decision to invade without the authorization of a UN resolution. Cook said at the time that: "In principle I believe it is wrong to embark on military action without broad international support. In practice I believe it is against Britain's interests to create a precedent for unilateral military action.” [ 238 ] In addition, senior government legal advisor Elizabeth Wilmshurst resigned, stating her legal opinion that an invasion would be illegal.
United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan said in an interview with the BBC in September 2004, "[F]rom our point of view and from the Charter point of view [the war] was illegal." [ 239 ] This drew immediate criticism from the United States and was immediately played down." [ 240 ] His annual report to the General Assembly for 2003 included no more than the statement: "Following the end of major hostilities which resulted in the occupation of Iraq..." [ 241 ] A similar report from the Security Council was similarly terse in its reference to the event: "Following the cessation of hostilities in Iraq in April 2003..." [ 242 ]
However, some argue that Kofi Annan was simply picking sides and playing politics. The United Nations Security Council has passed nearly 60 resolutions on Iraq and Kuwait since Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990. The most relevant to this issue is Resolution 678 , passed on November 29, 1990. It authorizes "member states co-operating with the Government of Kuwait...to use all necessary means" to (1) implement Security Council Resolution 660 and other resolutions calling for the end of Iraq's occupation of Kuwait and withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwaiti territory and (2) "restore international peace and security in the area." However, the phrase "restore international peace and security in the area" was widely understood to refer to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait and was not a blank check for future military aggression against Iraq.
[ edit ] Military intervention vs diplomatic solution Further information: Dominique de Villepin's speech at the UN Security Council (February 14, 2003)
Criticisms about the evidence used to justify the war notwithstanding, many opponents of military intervention objected, saying that a diplomatic solution would be preferable, and that war should be reserved as a truly last resort. This position was exemplified by French Foreign Minister Dominique de Villepin , who responded to US Secretary of State Colin Powell's February 5, 2003 presentation to the UN Security Council by saying that: "Given the choice between military intervention and an inspections regime that is inadequate because of a failure to cooperate on Iraq's part, we must choose the decisive reinforcement of the means of inspections." [ 243 ]
On February 12, 2003 following the UN inspection report delivery, each one of the 15 representative of the UN Security Council were given a 10 minute speech to expose the position they chose for their country. The Hans Blix -led United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission report concluded on "no evidence of forbidden military nuclear activities", "no evidence of mass destruction weapon" (Iraq's unconventional weapons program would had been successfully dismantled during the 1990s), but "Baghdad must cooperate more". [ 244 ]
First speaker was the representative of Syria — sole Arab state in the council — which strongly supported the continuation of the inspections, arguing that Iraq was accused to not respect the UN resolutions while Israel ignored more than 500 of them and owned mass destruction weapons as well.
Next was de Villepin. Some excerpts that voice opposition to immediate use of military force: “In adopting unanimously resolution 1441, we have collectively shown our agreement on proceeding with two steps: the choice of disarmament by way of inspections, and, in case of failure of this strategy, the examination by the Security Council of all options, including that of recourse to force. It's in this scenario of failure of the inspections, and in this case only, that a second resolution can be justified. … France has two convictions: first, that the option of inspections hasn't been carried through to its conclusion and can bring an effective response to the imperative to disarm Iraq; and second, that a use of force would have such heavy consequences for people, for the region et for international stability, that it couldn't be envisaged except as a last resort. … We have just heard [in the report from Mr Blix and Mr El Baradeï] that the inspections are giving results. Of course, each of us wants more, and we continue together to put pressure on Bagdad to obtain more. But the inspections are giving results. [De Villepin then lists some of these results, and describes them as 'significant advances'. He describes steps France has made to help these inspections give more results.]
“ " There are two options: the option of war may appear a priori the fastest. But let us not forget that that after having won the war, we will have to construct peace. And let us not deceive ourselves: it will be long and difficult, for we will have to preserve the unity of Iraq, re-establish in a durable manner stability in a country and a region strongly affected by the intrusion of force. [The other option is the inspections], which allow to progress day by day towards an effective and peaceful disarmament of Iraq. All things considered, is this option not the most sure and the fastest?
… In this context, the use of force isn't justified today. … ...
The authority for our action rests on the unity of the international community. A military intervention that is premature would jeopardize that unity, which would remove its legitimacy and, over the course of time, its effectiveness.
Such an intervention could have incalculable consequences for the stability of this bruised and fragile region. It would reinforce the feeling of injustice, would aggravate tensions and would risk opening the way to other conflicts.
” "
On the subject of terrorism, de Villepin casts doubt on “the supposed links between Al-Qaida and the regime of Baghdad”. He continues: “On the other hand, … would such an intervention today not risk aggravating the fractures between societies, between cultures, between people, the fractures on which terrorism lives?” [ 245 ]
France took the lead of the diplomatic solution front together with Germany and Russia, in the likes of a classic nineteenth century European empires alliance [ disambiguation needed ] , as de Villepin advocated for an additional time for the inspectors.
“ " In this temple of the United Nations, we are the guards of an ideal, we are the guards of a conscience. The heavy responsibility and the immense honor we have must lead us to give priority to disarmament in peace. … And it is an old country, France, of an old continent like mine, Europe, that says this to you today, which has seen war, occupation, cruelty. A country that does not forget and that knows all that it owes to the freedom fighters from America and elsewhere. … Faithful to its values, it believes in our capacity to construct together a better world. ” "
US President George W. Bush and French President Jacques Chirac in 2001 Colin Powell responded that Iraq cheated with the UN and the inspections could not continue indefinitely. [ 244 ]
The direct opposition between diplomatic solution and military intervention involving France and the United States which was impersonated by Chirac versus Bush then later Powell versus de Villepin, became a milestone in the Franco-American relations . Anti-French propangada exploiting the classic Francophobic clichés immediately ensued in the United States and the United Kingdom. A call for a boycott on French wine was launched in the United States and the New York Post covered on the 1944 "Sacrifice" of the GIs France would had forgotten. It was followed a week later, in February 20, by the British newspaper The Sun publishing a special issue entitled "Chirac is a worm" and including ad hominem attacks such as "Jacques Chirac has become the shame of Europe". [ 246 ] Actually both newspapers expressed the opinion of their owner, US billionaire Rupert Murdoch , a military intervention supporter and a George W. Bush partisan as argued by Roy Greenslade in The Guardian published on February 17. [ 246 ] [ 247 ]
[ edit ] Distraction from the war on terrorism and other priorities Both supporters and opponents of the Iraq War widely viewed it within the context of a post- September 11 world, where the US has sought to make terrorism the defining international security paradigm. Bush often describes the Iraq War as a “central front in the war on terror ”. [ 248 ] Some critics of the war, particularly within the US military community, argued pointedly against the conflation of Iraq and the war on terror, and criticized Bush for losing focus on the more important objective of fighting al-Qaeda. As Marine Lieut. General Greg Newbold , the Pentagon's former top operations officer, wrote in a 2006 Time article, “I now regret that I did not more openly challenge those who were determined to invade a country whose actions were peripheral to the real threat—al-Qaeda.” [ 249 ]
Critics within this vein have further argued that containment would have been an effective strategy for the Hussein government, and that the top US priorities in the Middle East should be encouraging a solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict , working for the moderation of Iran , and solidifying gains made in Afghanistan and central Asia. In an October 2002 speech, Retired Marine Gen. Anthony Zinni , former head of Central Command for US forces in the Middle East and State Department's envoy to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, called Iraq “maybe six or seven,” in terms of US Middle East priorities, adding that “the affordability line may be drawn around five.” [ 250 ] However, while commander of CENTCOM, Zinni held a very different opinion concerning the threat posed by Iraq. In testimony before the Senate Armed Services Committee in February 2000, Zinni said: “Iraq remains the most significant near-term threat to US interests in the Persian Gulf region. This is primarily due to its large conventional military force, pursuit of WMD, oppressive treatment of Iraqi citizens, refusal to comply with United Nations Security Council Resolutions (UNSCR), persistent threats to enforcement of the No Fly Zones (NFZ), and continued efforts to violate UN Security Council sanctions through oil smuggling.” [ 251 ] However, it is important to note that Zinni specifically referred to "the Persian Gulf region" in his Senate testimony, which is a significantly smaller region of the world than the "Middle East", which he referred to in 2007.
[ edit ] Potential to destabilize the region Besides arguing that Iraq was not the top strategic priority in the war on terrorism or in the Middle East, critics of the war also suggested that it could potentially destabilize the surrounding region. Prominent among such critics was Brent Scowcroft , who served as National Security Advisor to George HW Bush . In an August 15, 2002 Wall Street Journal editorial entitled "Don't attack Saddam ," Scowcroft wrote that, “Possibly the most dire consequences would be the effect in the region... there would be an explosion of outrage against us... the results could well destabilize Arab regimes”, and, “could even swell the ranks of the terrorists.” [ 252 ]
[ edit ] Related phrases This article may contain original research . Este artigo pode conter pesquisa original . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references . Por favor, melhorá-lo por verificar as alegações e adicionando referências . Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. Demonstrações, consistindo apenas em pesquisa original pode ser removido. More details may be available on the talk page . (May 2009) Mais informações podem estar disponíveis na página de discussão . (Maio 2009)
See also: Public relations preparations for 2003 invasion of Iraq
This campaign featured a variety of new terminology, much of it initially coined by the US government or military. The military official name for the invasion was Operation Iraqi Liberation ( White House Press Release ). However this was quickly changed to "Operation Iraqi Freedom." Also notable was the usage " death squads " to refer to fedayeen paramilitary forces. Members of the Saddam Hussein government were called by disparaging nicknames – eg, "Chemical Ali" ( Ali Hassan al-Majid ), "Baghdad Bob" or "Comical Ali" ( Muhammed Saeed al-Sahaf ), and "Mrs. Anthrax" or "Chemical Sally" ( Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash ). Saddam Hussein was systematically referred to as "Saddam", which some Westerners mistakenly believed to be disparaging. (Although there is no consensus about how to refer to him in English, "Saddam" is acceptable usage, and is how people in Iraq and the Middle East generally refer to him. [ 253 ] )
Terminology introduced or popularized during the war include:
" Axis of evil ", originally used by Bush during a State of the Union address on January 29, 2002 to describe the countries of Iraq, Iran and North Korea. [ 254 ]
" Coalition of the willing ", a term that originated in the Clinton era (eg, interview, Clinton, ABC , June 8, 1994), and used by the Bush Administration to describe the countries contributing troops in the invasion, of which the US and UK were the primary members.
" Decapitating the regime", a euphemism for either overthrowing the government or killing Saddam Hussein.
" Embedding ", United States practice of assigning civilian journalists to US military units.
" Mother of all bombs ", a bomb developed and produced to support Operation Iraqi Freedom. Its name echoes Saddam's phrase "Mother of all battles" to describe the first Gulf War . [ 255 ]
" Old Europe ", Rumsfeld's term used to describe European governments not supporting the war: "You're thinking of Europe as Germany and France. I don't. I think that's old Europe."
" Regime change ", a euphemism for overthrowing a government.
" Shock and Awe ", the strategy of reducing an enemy's will to fight through displays of overwhelming force.
Many slogans and terms coined came to be used by Bush's political opponents, or those opposed to the war. For example, in April 2003 John Kerry , the Democratic candidate in the presidential election , said at a campaign rally: "What we need now is not just a regime change in Saddam Hussein and Iraq, but we need a regime change in the United States." [ 256 ] Other war critics use the name "Operation Iraqi Liberation (OIL)" to subtly point out their opinion as to the cause of the war, such as the song Operation Iraqi Liberation (OIL) by David Rovics , a popular folk protest singer.
[ edit ] See also [ editar ] Ver também American popular opinion of invasion of Iraq
Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq
Canada and the Iraq War
Canada and Iraq War Resisters
Casualties of the conflict in Iraq since 2003
Foreign hostages in Iraq
Governments' pre-war positions on invasion of Iraq
Human rights in post-Saddam Iraq
Iraqi insurgency
Interrogation of Saddam Hussein
Wikinews has news related to: Wikinews tem notícias relacionadas a:
Iraq War
Iraq War portal Guerra do Iraque portal
Iraq portal
Military of the United States portal Militar dos Estados Unidos portal
War portal Guerra portal
Occupation of Iraq timeline
British contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq
Polish involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq
Reconstruction of Iraq Reconstrução do Iraque
Refugees of Iraq
Sectarian violence in Iraq
Views on the 2003 invasion of Iraq
Weapons of the 2003 invasion and occupation of Iraq
Withdrawal of US troops from Iraq
Criticism:
Popular opposition to the 2003 Iraq War
Protests against the 2003 Iraq war
Opposition to the Iraq War
Intrigues:
Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse Abu Ghraib, tortura e abuso de prisioneiros
Iraq disarmament crisis
The UN Security Council and the Iraq war
Lancet surveys of casualties of the Iraq War
Legitimacy of the 2003 invasion of Iraq
Iraq War documents leak
Lists: Listas:
List of people associated with the 2003 invasion of Iraq
List of aviation accidents and incidents during the Iraq War Lista de acidentes e incidentes de aviação durante a Guerra do Iraque
List of wars and disasters by death toll Lista de guerras e catástrofes, mortes
General: Geral:
British Mandate of Iraq
Carter Doctrine
Command responsibility responsabilidade de comando
Democracy in the Middle East Democracia no Oriente Médio
Energy crisis
Foreign policy of the United States
Jus ad bellum
Peak oil theory
Oil reserves in Iraq
Petrodollar warfare guerra do petrodólar
Petroleum industry Indústria do petróleo
United Nations Charter
War on Terrorism Guerra contra o Terrorismo
[ edit ] Notes [ editar ] Notas ^ Graham, Bradley (2003-04-07). "US Airlifts Iraqi Exile Force For Duties Near Nasiriyah" . Washington Post . http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A42859-2003Apr6.html . Retrieved 2009-09-13 . Obtido 2009/09/13.
^ John Pike (2003-03-14). "Free Iraqi Forces Committed to Democracy, Rule of Law - DefenseLink" . Globalsecurity.org . http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/iraq/2003/iraq-030314-afps03.htm . Retrieved 2009-09-13 . Obtido 2009/09/13.
^ a b "Deploying the Free Iraqi Forces – US News & World Report" . Usnews.com. Usnews.com. 2003-04-07 . http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/iraq/articles/fiff030407.htm . Retrieved 2009-09-13 . Obtido 2009/09/13.
^ a b Kim Ghattas (14 April 2003). "Syrians join Iraq 'jihad'" . BBC News . http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2947233.stm .
^ "Arab volunteers to Iraq: 'token' act or the makings of another Afghan jihad?" . http://www.lebanonwire.com/0304/03040113DS.asp .
^ "UK | Profile: Air Marshal Sir Brian Burridge" . BBC News. BBC News. 2003-05-08 . http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3009897.stm . Retrieved 2009-09-13 . Obtido 2009/09/13.
^ "Military Factfiles." BBC factfiles about the invasion of Iraq.
^ [1] UK Armed Forces encyclopaedia about Operation TELIC order of battle circa March 2003 invasion of Iraq.
^ a b "Surrogate Warfare: The Role of US Army Special Forces - MAJ Isaac J. Peltier, US Army – p. 29" . http://cgsc.cdmhost.com/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=/p4013coll3&CISOPTR=363 . Retrieved 2009-09-13 . Obtido 2009/09/13.
^ "Iraq Coalition Casualties: Fatalities by Year and Month" iCasualties.org. Retrieved on 2009-11-01.
^ Arab media
^ Willing to face Death: A History of Kurdish Military Forces - the Peshmerga - from the Ottoman Empire to Present-Day Iraq (page 67) , Michael G. Lortz
^ "Secretary of Defense Interview with Bob Woodward - 23 Oct, 2003" . United States Department of Defense: News Transcript. April 19, 2004.
^ a b "The Wages of War: Iraqi Combatant and Noncombatant Fatalities in the 2003 Conflict | Commonwealth Institute of Cambridge" . Comw.org . http://www.comw.org/pda/0310rm8.html . Retrieved 2009-09-13 . Obtido 2009/09/13.
^ "Wages of War – Appendix 1. Survey of reported Iraqi combatant fatalities in the 2003 war | Commonwealth Institute of Cambridge" . Comw.org . http://www.comw.org/pda/0310rm8ap1.html#10.%20Karbala,%20Karbala%20gap,%20and%20north%20to%20Baghdad . Retrieved 2009-09-13 . Obtido 2009/09/13.
^ "Body counts" . By Jonathan Steele. The Guardian . May 28, 2003.
^ Iraq Body Count project . Source of IBC quote on undercounting by media is [2] .
^ Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 The Library of Congress.
^ "US has 100,000 troops in Kuwait" . CNN . February 18, 2003 . http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/02/18/sprj.irq.deployment/index.html .
^ a b "President Discusses Beginning of Operation Iraqi Freedom" . http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030322.html .
^ "President Bush Meets with Prime Minister Blair" . Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. Georgewbush whitehouse.archives.gov. 2003-01-31 . http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/01/20030131-23.html . Retrieved 2009-09-13 . Obtido 2009/09/13.
^ "US, UK Waged War on Iraq Because of Oil, Blair Adviser Says" Bloomberg.com, May 1, 2003
^ "Report: Hundreds of WMDs Found in Iraq" , FOXNews.com, June 22, 2006
^ Fax and report , June 21, 2006
^ "CIA's final report: No WMD found in Iraq - Conflict in Iraq - MSNBC.com" . Msnbc.msn.com. Msnbc.msn.com. April 25, 2005 . http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7634313/ . Retrieved 2008-09-01 . Obtido 2008-09-01.
^ a b "Poll: Talk First, Fight Later" . CBS.com , Jan. 24, 2003. Retrieved on April 23, 2007. Página visitada em 23 de abril de 2007.
^ Joint Declaration by Russia, Germany and France on Iraq France Diplomatie February 10, 2003
^ NZ praised for 'steering clear of Iraq war The Dominion Post December 7, 2008
^ Beltrame, Julian (March 31, 2003). "Canada to Stay out of Iraq War" . Maclean's . http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=M1ARTM0012457 . Retrieved 19 January 2009 . Retirado 19 de janeiro de 2009.
^ "Guinness World Records, Largest Anti-War Rally" . Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 2004-09-04 . http://web.archive.org/web/20040904214302/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=54365 . Retrieved 2007-01-11 . Obtido 2007/01/11.
^ Callinicos, Alex (March 19, 2005). "Anti-war protests do make a difference" . Socialist Worker . http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/article.php?article_id=6067 . Retrieved 2007-01-11 . Obtido 2007/01/11.
^ "Gulf War Timeline" . ^ "Cronologia da Guerra do Golfo" . CNN. CNN. 2001. 2001. Archived from the original on April 28, 2005 . http://web.archive.org/web/20050428175318/http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/gulf.war/timeline/content/1991/april.html . Retrieved 2008-12-22 . Obtido 2008/12/22.
^ a b "Iraq tests no-fly zone" . CNN.com. CNN.com. January 4, 1999 . http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/meast/9901/04/iraq.no.fly/ . Retrieved 2006-05-25 . Obtido 2006/05/25.
^ a b "Coalition planes hit Iraq sites in no-fly zone" . CNN.com. CNN.com. November 28, 2002 . http://cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/11/28/sproject.irq.nofly.zone/index.html . Retrieved 2006-05-25 . Obtido 2006/05/25.
^ "Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 (Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate)" . Library of Congress . http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c105:HR4655.ENR : . Retrieved 2006-05-25 .
^ "RESOLUTION 687 (1991)" . April 8, 1991 . http://www.fas.org/news/un/iraq/sres/sres0687.htm . Retrieved 2006-05-25 .
^ William, Arkin (January 17, 1999). "The Difference Was in the Details" . The Washington Post : p. B1 . http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/irqtar.htm . Retrieved April 23, 2007 . [ dead link ] [ mortos link ]
^ "REPUBLICAN PLATFORM 2000" . CNN.com. CNN.com. Archived from the original on April 21, 2006 . http://web.archive.org/web/20060421063832/http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2000/conventions/republican/features/platform.00/ . Retrieved 2006-05-25 . Obtido 2006/05/25.
^ "O'Neill: 'Frenzy' distorted war plans account" . CNN.com. CNN.com. January 14, 2004 . http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/01/13/oneill.bush/ . Retrieved 2006-05-26 . Obtido 2006/05/26.
^ Richard Aldrich, 'An extra copy for Mr Philby,' in Times Literary Supplement , February 19, 2010 pp.7-8, p.7
^ "Plans For Iraq Attack Began On 9/11" . CBS News. CBS News. 2002-09-04 . http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/04/september11/main520830.shtml . Retrieved 2006-05-26 . Obtido 2006/05/26.
^ Smith, Jeffrey R. “Hussein's Prewar Ties To Al-Qaeda Discounted” . The Washington Post, Friday, April 6, 2007; Page A01. Retrieved on April 23, 2007. Página visitada em 23 de abril de 2007.
^ "Chronology of the Bush Doctrine" . Frontline.org . Retrieved on April 23, 2007. Página visitada em 23 de abril de 2007.
^ William Schneider (September 12, 2002). "Marketing Iraq: Why now?" . CNN . http://archives.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/09/12/schneider.iraq/ . Retrieved 2006-09-04 . Obtido 2006/09/04.
^ George W. Bush , "President's Remarks at the United Nations General Assembly: Remarks by the President in Address to the United Nations General Assembly, New York, New York", official transcript, press release, The White House , September 12, 2002, accessed May 24, 2007.
^ "France threatens rival UN Iraq draft" . BBC News , October 26, 2002. ^ "A França ameaça rival projecto da ONU no Iraque" . BBC News , 26 de outubro de 2002. Retrieved on April 23, 2007 Página visitada em 23 de abril de 2007
^ "US Wants Peaceful Disarmament of Iraq, Says Negroponte" . Embassy of the United States in Manila. November 8, 2002. Archived from the original on January 3, 2006 . http://web.archive.org/web/20060103230014/http://manila.usembassy.gov/wwwhira3.html . Retrieved 2006-05-26 . Obtido 2006/05/26.
^ "Statements of the Director General" . IAEA . http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Statements/2003/ebsp2003n006.shtml . Retrieved 2006-09-07 . Obtido 2006-09-07.
^ Blix, Hans (2003-05-13), Thirteenth quarterly report of the Executive Chairman of the United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission in accordance with paragraph 12 of Security council resolution 1284 (1999) , UNMOVIC
^ "Selected Security Council Briefings" . UNMOVIC . http://www.unmovic.org/ . Retrieved 2002-09-07 .
^ Hans Blix's briefing to the security council . Retrieved January 30, 2008. Retirado 30 janeiro de 2008.
^ a b c d e f Plan of Attack, Bob Woodward, Simon and Shuster, 2004.
^ a b c d e Tucker, Mike; Charles Faddis (2008). Operation Hotel California: The Clandestine War inside Iraq . The Lyons Press. ISBN 9781599213668 .
^ a b c d " Charles Faddis "Operation Hotel California" (Lyons Press) ". The Diane Rehm Show . WAMU . October 17, 2008.
^ Behind lines, an unseen war, Faye Bowers, Christian Science Monitor, April 2003.
^ Woodward, Bob (2004). Plan of Attack . Simon & Schuster, Inc . ISBN 9780743255479 .
^ "US, Britain and Spain Abandon Resolution" . Associated Press. Associated Press. 2003-03-17 . http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/iraq/attack/armtwist/2003/0317usbritspain.htm . Retrieved 2006-08-06 . Obtido 2006-08-06.
^ "Bush: Iraq is playing 'willful charade'" . CNN. CNN. 2003-03-07 . http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/03/06/sprj.irq.main/index.html . Retrieved 2006-08-06 . Obtido 2006-08-06.
^ Diamond, John (2003-03-28). "Republican Guard gets last chance against US forces" . Usatoday.Com . http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2003-03-27-republican-guard-cover_x.htm . Retrieved 2011-01-15 . Obtido 2011/01/15.
^ Largest anti-war rally , Guinness Book of World Records, 2004
^ White House Office of the Press Secretary (March 17, 2003). "President Says Saddam Hussein Must Leave Iraq Within 48 Hours" . Press release . http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030317-7.html . Retrieved 2010-07-28 . Obtido 2010/07/28.
^ "Division No. 117 (Iraq)" . Commons Hansard Debates ( Parliament of the United Kingdom ) 401 (365). 18 March 2003 . http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200203/cmhansrd/vo030318/debtext/30318-47.htm .
^ Jason Webb (September 26, 2007). "Bush thought Saddam was prepared to flee: report" . Reuters, Washington Post . http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/26/AR2007092601024.html . Retrieved 2007-09-27 . Obtido 2007/09/27. [ dead link ] [ mortos link ]
^ a b c "CNN.com" . CNN . http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0311/06/i_ins.01.html .
^ Risen, James; Lichtblau, Eric (December 11, 2003). "A REGION INFLAMED: BACK CHANNELS; US Opens Firearms Charge Against Iraq-US Contact" . The New York Times . http://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/11/world/a-region-inflamed-back-channels-us-opens-firearms-charge-against-iraq-us-contact.html?pagewanted=1 . Retrieved March 29, 2010 . Retirado 29 março, 2010.
^ Bob Kemper (2002-10-23). "Saddam can keep rule if he complies: Bush" . Daily Times . http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_23-10-2002_pg4_1 .
^ "News Release" . ^ "Release News" . White House . http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030306-8.html .
^ "Tony Blair: Answer to Parliamentary Question" . Hansard . http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmhansrd/vo020924/debtext/20924-05.htm .
^ "PM gives interview to Radio Monte Carlo" . http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page1299.asp .
^ "Bush, Blair: Time running out for Saddam" . CNN. CNN. January 31, 2003 . http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/01/31/sprj.irq.bush.blair.topics/ .
^ "Tony Blair: Parliamentary Statement" . Hansard . http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page3088.asp .
^ "BBC ON THIS DAY | 16 | 1988: Thousands die in Halabja gas attack" . BBC News . http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/16/newsid_4304000/4304853.stm . Retrieved 2011-01-15 . Obtido 2011/01/15.
^ "Halabja, the massacre the West tried to ignore" [ dead link ]
^ Milbank, Dana (June 18, 2004). "Bush Defends Assertions of Iraq-Al Qaeda Relationship" . The Washington Post : p. A09 . http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50679-2004Jun17.html . Retrieved 2007-10-22 . Obtido 2007/10/22.
^ Feldmann, Linda (March 14, 2003). "The impact of Bush linking 9/11 and Iraq" . The Christian Science Monitor . http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0314/p02s01-woiq.html . Retrieved 2007-10-22 . Obtido 2007/10/22.
^ "Bush administration on Iraq 9/11 link" . BBC News Online . September 18, 2003 . http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3119676.stm . Retrieved 2007-10-22 . Obtido 2007/10/22.
^ Kornblut, Anne E.; Bender, Bryan (2003-09-16). "Cheney link of Iraq, 9/11 challenged" . The Boston Globe . http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2003/09/16/cheney_link_of_iraq_911_challenged/ . Retrieved 2007-10-22 . Obtido 2007/10/22.
^ "Kerry challenges Bush on Iraq-9/11 connection" . CNN . September 13, 2004 . http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/09/12/kerry.powell.iraq/index.html . Retrieved 2007-10-22 . Obtido 2007/10/22.
^ "Transcript of Powell's UN Presentation: ... a Transcript of US Secretary of State Colin Powell's Presentation to the UN Security Council on the US Case Against Iraq". cnn.com , February 6, 2003, accessed May 24, 2007. (Part 5 on "Iraq's Biological Weapons Program" inc. still photo of Powell with sample anthrax vial from Powell's presentation of February 5, 2003.) Cf. Press release and The White House video clip of full presentation, February 5, 2003, accessed May 24, 2007.
^ "CIA's final report: No WMD found in Iraq" . MSNBC.com , April 25, 2005. Retrieved on April 5, 2007, Associated Press
^ Australian Associated Press (2003-09-23). "Pilger claims White House knew Saddam was no threat." . Sydney Morning Herald . http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/23/1064082978207.html .
^ Marquis, Christopher (2004-01-09). "Powell Admits No Hard Proof in Linking Iraq to Al Qaeda." . New York Times . http://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/09/politics/09POWE.html?ex=1388984400&en=6bb5457574b8ec1d&ei=5007&partner=USERLAND .
^ "Evidence on Iraq Challenged," Joby Warrick, The Washington Post , Sept. 19, 2002
^ Colin Powell's speech to the UN , Feb 5, 2003
^ Meet the Press , NBC, May 16, 2004
^ Lichtblau, Eric. " 2002 Memo Doubted Uranium Sale Claim" , The New York Times , January 18, 2006. Retrieved on May 10, 2007. Recuperado em 10 maio de 2007.
^ Senator Bill Nelson (January 28, 2004) "New Information on Iraq's Possession of Weapons of Mass Destruction", Congressional Record ^ o senador Bill Nelson (28 de janeiro, 2004) "Novas Informações sobre a posse do Iraque de armas de destruição em massa", Anais do Congresso
^ Lowe, C. (December 16, 2003) "Senator: White House Warned of UAV Attack," Defense Tech ^ Lowe, C. (16 de dezembro de 2003) "O senador: Casa Branca advertiu de ataque UAV," Defense Tech
^ Hammond, J. (November 14, 2005) "The US 'intelligence failure' and Iraq's UAVs" The Yirmeyahu Review ^ Hammond, J. (14 de novembro de 2005) "fracasso" A "a inteligência dos EUA e do Iraque UAV" A revisão Yirmeyahu
^ Senators Slam Shifting Iraq War Justification. Islamonline . July 30, 2003.
^ Roth, Ken. "War in Iraq: Not a Humanitarian Intervention" Human Rights Watch . January 2004. Janeiro de 2004. Retrieved April 6, 2007.
^ "107th Congress-2nd Session 455th Roll Call Vote of by members of the House of Representatives" . Clerk.house.gov. 2002-10-10 . http://clerk.house.gov/evs/2002/roll455.xml . Retrieved 2011-01-15 . Obtido 2011/01/15.
^ "107th Congress-2nd Session 237th Roll Call Vote by members of the Senate" . Senate.gov . http://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=107&session=2&vote=00237 . Retrieved 2011-01-15 . Obtido 2011/01/15.
^ Saddam Hussein's Defiance of UNSCRs [ dead link ]
^ UN Security Council Resolution 1441 [ dead link ]
^ "Links to Opinions of Legality of War Against Iraq" . Robincmiller.com . http://www.robincmiller.com/ir-legal.htm . Retrieved 2009-09-13 . Obtido 2009/09/13.
^ "Law Groups Say US Invasion Illegal" . Commondreams.org. Commondreams.org. 2003-03-21 . http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0321-10.htm . Retrieved 2009-09-13 . Obtido 2009/09/13.
^ "International Commission of Jurists" . Icj.org. 2003-03-18 . http://www.icj.org/news.php3?id_article=2770&lang=en . Retrieved 2009-09-13 . Obtido 2009/09/13.
^ Burkeman, Oliver (November 21, 2003). "Invasion right but 'illegal', says US hawk" . Melbourne: The Age . http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/11/20/1069027255087.html . Retrieved 2006-05-26 . Obtido 2006/05/26.
^ Oliver Burkeman and Julian Borger (November 20, 2003). "War critics astonished as US hawk admits invasion was illegal" . London: The Guardian . http://www.guardian.co.uk/Iraq/Story/0,2763,1089158,00.html . Retrieved 2006-05-26 . Obtido 2006/05/26.
^ Transcript of Powell's UN Presentation .[CNN.com]
^ The Guardian, 12 January 2010, "Iraq Invasion Violated International Law, Dutch Inquiry Finds: Investigation into the Netherlands' Support for 2003 War Finds Military Action was Not Justified under UN Resolutions," http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jan/12/iraq-invasion-violated-interational-law-dutch-inquiry-finds
^ Richard Norton-Taylor International court hears anti-war claims in The Guardian May 6, 2005.
^ Chamberlin, Gethin. "Court 'can envisage' Blair prosecution" . The Sunday Telegraph, March 17, 2003. Retrieved on May 25, 2005.
^ "Press Briefing by Ari Fleischer" . The White House press release . 2003-03-24 . http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030324-4.html . Retrieved 2006-07-21 . Obtido 2006/07/21.
^ "Bush: Join 'coalition of willing'" . CNN . 2002-11-20 . http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/11/20/prague.bush.nato/ .
^ "Coalition Members" . The White House . 2003-03-27 . http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030327-10.html .
^ Australian Department of Defence (2004). The War in Iraq. ADF Operations in the Middle East in 2003 . Page 11. Página 11.
^ Carter, Linwood B. (November 28, 2005). "Iraq: Summary of US Forces" . Archived from the original on 2009-07-22 . http://www.webcitation.org/5iSuYUJDV . Retrieved 2009-07-19 . Obtido 2009/07/19.
^ for more information about Turkey's policy during the invasion look, Ali Balci and Murat Yesiltas, 'Turkey's New Middle East Policy: The Case of the Meeting of the Foreign Ministers of Iraq's Neighboring Countries', Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, XXIX (4), Summer 2006, pp. 18–38
^ Ford, Peter. A weak northern front could lengthen Iraq War . Christian Science Monitor, April 3, 2003. Retrieved on May 7, 2003.
^ "Saddam's Last Line Of Defense" . CBS. CBS. 2003-03-26 . http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/03/26/iraq/main546241.shtml . Retrieved 2006-08-06 .
^ "Saddam counts on Republican Guard as last chance for defending Baghdad" . Associated Press. Associated Press. 2003-03-26 . http://www.globalsecurity.org/org/news/2003/030326-lastchance01.htm . Retrieved 2006-08-06 .
^ Burgess, Mark (2002-11-12). "CDI Primer: Iraqi Military Effectiveness" . Center for Defense Information . http://www.cdi.org/friendlyversion/printversion.cfm?documentID=607 . Retrieved 2006-08-06 .
^ Windle, David (2003-01-29). "Military muscle" . New Scientist . http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn3325 . Retrieved 2006-08-06 .
^ "Iraqi Ground Forces Organization" . GlobalSecurity.org . http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iraq/ground-org.htm . Retrieved 2006-08-06 . Obtido 2006-08-06.
^ "Most loyal soldiers in Iraq belong to Fedayeen Saddam" . Seattle Times. Seattle Times. 2003-03-27 . http://www.globalsecurity.org/org/news/2003/030327-fedayeen02.htm . Retrieved 2006-08-06 .
^ Evan Wright , Generation Kill , page 249. Berkley Publishing Group, 2004. ISBN 0-399-15193-1
^ David Zucchino, Thunder Run , page 189. Grove Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8021-4179-X
^ Peterson, Scott (October 16, 2003). "The rise and fall of Ansar al-Islam" . The Christian Science Monitor . http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/1016/p12s01-woiq.html .
^ "A People Betrayed, John Pilger" . Zmag.org. 2003-02-23 . http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=3106 . Retrieved 2009-09-13 . Obtido 2009/09/13.
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^ Shewchuk, Blair (February 2003). "Words: Woe and Wonder" . CBC News Online . http://www.cbc.ca/news/indepth/words/saddam_hussein.html . Retrieved 2006-07-21 . Obtido 2006/07/21.
^ "The President's State of the Union Address" . 2002-01-29 . http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020129-11.html . Retrieved 2006-07-21 . Obtido 2006/07/21.
^ Kaplan, Fred (2003-03-13). "Meet the Air Force's "palace buster."" . MSN.com . http://slate.msn.com/id/2080106/ . Retrieved 2009-09-21 . Obtido 2009/09/21.
^ Balz, Dan (2003-04-03). "Kerry Angers GOP in Calling For 'Regime Change' in US" . Washington Post. Washington Post. p. p. A10 . http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A23490-2003Apr3 . Retrieved 2006-07-21 . Obtido 2006/07/21.
[ edit ] References [ editar ] Referências Allen, Mike and Juliet Eilperin. Monday, August 26, 2002. Page A01 The Washington Post "Bush Aides Say Iraq War Needs No Hill Vote" . Accessed on 2008-05-21.
CNN.com/Inside Politics (2002-10-11). "Senate approves Iraq war resolution" . Accessed on June 6, 2005.
Donnelly, Thomas (2000). Rebuilding America's Defenses: Strategy, Forces and Resources For a New Century. . Washington DC: Project for the New American Century . OCLC 223661155 . http://newamericancentury.org/RebuildingAmericasDefenses.pdf .
McCain, John. "Finishing the Job in Iraq" . Air Force Magazine (July 2004). Archived from the original on 2009-08-05 . http://www.webcitation.org/5ioXYZrul . Retrieved 2009-08-03 . Obtido 2009/08/03.
Office of US Representative Ron Paul (2002). "Paul Calls for Congressional Declaration of War with Iraq" . Accessed on June 6, 2005.
Reynolds, Nicholas E. (2005-05-01). Basrah, Baghdad, and Beyond: US Marine Corps in the Second Iraq War . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 9781591147176 .
Ricks, Thomas E. . Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq . Penguin. ISBN 159420103X .
Woods, Kevin M (2006). Iraqi perspectives project : a view of Operation Iraqi Freedom from Saddam's senior leadership . United States Joint Forces Command , Joint Center for Operational Analysis. ISBN 0976255014 . http://www.jfcom.mil/newslink/storyarchive/2006/ipp.pdf .
Wright, Steven. The United States and Persian Gulf Security: The Foundations of the War on Terror . Ithaca Press: 2007. ISBN 978-0-86372-321-6 .
Zucchino, David (2004). Thunder Run: The Armored Strike to Capture Baghdad . New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 0871139111 .
[ edit ] Further reading [ editar ] Leitura complementar " The Three Trillion Dollar War " by Nobel Prize laureate Joseph Stiglitz and Harvard professor Linda Bilmes
"Shadow Warriors" by Kenneth R. Timmerman. Three Rivers Press. Three Rivers Press. 2008. ISBN 0-307-35209-9 (Paperback edition)
Spring 2007 Dissent , "Exporting Democracy: Lessons from Iraq," a symposium featuring Paul Berman , Mitchell Cohen, Seyla Benhabib and others. Read
Google Print * Masters of Chaos: The Secret History of the Special Forces by Linda Robinson
Heavy Metal a Tank Company's Battle to Baghdad by Captain Jason Conroy and Ron Martz
Cobra II : The Inside Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq by Michael R. Gordon and Bernard E. Trainor
Iraq and the Evolution of American Strategy by Steven Metz . ISBN 1-59797-196-0
The Iraq War by Williamson Murray and Robert H. Scales, Jr.
The Iraq War by John Keegan
Hans Köchler , The Iraq Crisis and the United Nations. Power Politics vs. the International Rule of Law . Studies in International Relations, XXVIII. Vienna: IPO, 2004, ISBN 3-900704-22-8 , Google Print
Bibliography: The Second US - Iraq War (2003- ) by Edwin Moise
[ edit ] External links [ editar ] Ligações externas This section may contain lists of external links , quotations or related pages discouraged by Wikipedia's Manual of Style . Esta seção pode conter listas de links externos , citações ou páginas relacionadas desencorajado pelo Manual de Estilo da Wikipédia . Please help integrate this content into the body of the article using in-text citations . Por favor, ajudar a integrar esse conteúdo no corpo do artigo, utilizando -citações no texto .
HJRes. 114 US Senate results to authorize the use of United States Armed Forces against Iraq.
Over half a million Iraqis dead, 4 years later, May 2007 after "us surge" monthly death rates not decreasing
War Report. More than 5,000 articles, documents and analyses of the Iraq and Afghanistan wars, updated four times a week—Project on Defense Alternatives.
CIA's final report
Occupation of Iraq Timeline at the History Commons
Morgues so full, bodies turned away
The War In Context News aggregator
National Priorities Project Cost of the Iraqi War Estimate
Video Seminar on Iraq Coalition Politics : April 20, 2005, sponsored by the Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security at the University of Illinois.
War in Iraq: Day by Day Guide
Iraq Special Weapons News
Archaeologists Review Loss of Valuables in Museum Looting
Iraqi Perspectives Report , Joint Center for Operational Analysis at United States Department of Defense , March 2006
"Frontline: The Dark Side" PBS documentary on Vice President Dick Cheney's remaking of the Executive and infighting leading up to the war in Iraq
1999 Desert Crossing War Game to Plan Invasion of Iraq and to Unseat Saddam Hussein
[ edit ] Video [ editar ] Video Cheney in '00: Invading Baghdad Would Make Us "An Imperial Power"
[show] Iraq war
[show]v · d · e v · d · e
Iraq War Guerra do Iraque
Prior events Disarmament crisis · WMD claims · Rationale · Popular opinion · Public relations · February interview · Biological weapons
Invasion Invasão Multi-National Force · Timeline · Battle of Nasiriyah · Invasion of Baghdad · Debecka Pass · Firdos Square statue · Mission Accomplished Speech
Occupation Profissão Military operations Coalition Provisional Authority · Iraq Interim Governing Council · Insurgency · Human rights · Civil war · Execution of Saddam Hussein · US troop withdrawal · Insurgent attacks · Aircraft loses
Opinions Opiniões Opposition · Protests · Criticism · Legitimacy · United Nations · International community · Associated people
Controversy Controvérsia Mahmudiyah killings · Blackwater Baghdad shootings · Haditha killings · Ishaqi incident · Mukaradeeb wedding party massacre · Baghdad airstrike · Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse · Iraq War documents leak · Baghdad Museum looting
Aftermath Resultado Refugees · Duelfer Report · Damage to Baghdad · Aid and Investment · Economic reform · Financial cost · Casualties · Chilcot Inquiry
Timeline Linha do tempo 2003 · 2004 · 2005 · 2006 · 2007 · 2008 · 2009 · 2010
Iraq War at Wikinews · Commons
[show]v · d · e v · d · e
2003 Iraq war Operations
2003 Operations Iraqi Freedom • Abiline • Airborne Dragon • All American Tiger • Antica Babilonia (Ancient Babylon) • Arrowhead Blizzard • Bayonet Lightning • Boothill • Bulldog Mammoth • Catalyst • Chamberlain • Choke Hold • Clear Area • Desert Scorpion • Desert Snowplough • Desert Thrust • Devil Siphon • Eagle Curtain • Falconer • Gratitude • Industrial Sweep • Iron Bullet • Iron Force • Iron Grip • Iron Hammer • Iron Justice • Ivy Blizzard • Ivy Cyclone • Ivy Cyclone II • Ivy Lightning • Ivy Needle • Ivy Serpent • Longstreet • Mandarin Squeeze • Northern Delay • OK Corral • Option North • Overcoat • Panther Backroads • Panther Squeeze • Peninsula Strike • Planet X • Red Dawn • Rifles Blitz • Rifles Fury • Rifle Sweep • Salm • Santa Strike • Scorpion Sting • Sidewinder • Silverado • Soda Mountain • Spartan Scorpian • Sweeny • Telic • Tiger Clean Sweep • Tyr • Whitehouse
See also Veja também Iraq • Invasion • Post Invasion • Iraq Operations - Chronological • Timeline • Insurgent attacks • Casualties
[show]v · d · e v · d · e
2004 Iraq war Operations
2004 Operations Aloha • Army Santa • Arrowhead Strike 10 • Backbreaker • Backpack • Baton Rouge • Black Typhoon • Blue Tiger • Bulldog Mammoth • Cajun Mousetrap II • Cajun Mousetrap III • Centaur Fast Gas • Centaur Rodeo • Centaur Strike II • Centaur Strike III • Clean Sweep • Clothes for Kids • Cobra Sweep • Crayon • Dallas • Danger Fortitude • Devil Clinch • Devil Thrust • Disarm • Diyala Border Police Audit • Diyala Sunrise • Dragon Victory • Duke Fury • Duke Fortitude • Eagle Liberty 3 • Falcon Freedom • Final Cut • Gimlet Crusader • Gimlet Silent Sniper • Gimlet Victory • Giuliani • Gizzly Forced Entry • Haifa Street • Hickory View • Hurricane • Hurricane II • I CAN • Iraqi Children • Iron Fist II • Iron Fury • Iron Fury II • Iron Promise • Iron Resolve • Iron Saber • Lancer Fury • Lancer Lightening • Lion Cub • Longhorn • Mandarine Squeeze • Market Sweep • Marne • Mayfield Sweep III • Mustang Flex • Mustang Socko • Mutual Security • New Dawn (Al Fajr) • Oasis • Outlaw Destroyer • Phantom Fury • Phantom Linebacker • Plymouth Rock • Powder River • Predator • Quarterhorse Rides • Ramadan Roundup • Rapier Thrust • Resolute Sword • Ripper Sweep • Rock Bottom • Rock Slide • Rocketman • Rocketman II • Rocketman III • Saber Turner II • Saloon • Shillelagh • Showdown • Slim Shady • Soccor Ball • Soprano Sunset • Spartan Scorpion • Spring Cleanup • Striker Hurricane • Striker Tornado • Student to Student • Suicide Kings • Tangerine Pinch • Tangerine Squeeze • Thunderstruck • Tiger Care • Tiger Fury • Tobruk • Tomahawk • Tombstone Piledriver • Trailblazer • Triple Play • True Grit • Vanguard Thunder • Vigilant Resolve • Warhorse Whirlwind • Warrior • Warrior Resolve • Windy City • Wolfhound Fury • Wolfhound Fury II • Wolfhound Jab • Wolfhound Power • Wolfhound Trap II • Wolfpack Crunch • Wolverine • Wolverine Feast • Wonderland • Yellowstone
See also Veja também Iraq • Invasion • Post Invasion • Iraq Operations - Chronological • Timeline • Terrorist Attacks • Casualties
[show]v · d · e v · d · e
2005 Iraq war Operations
2005 Operations Able Rising Force • Able Warrior • Attleboro (Iraq) • Badlands • Big Dig • Block Party • Block Party II • Bow Country • Bowie • Bruins • Bull Dawg Chariot • Carentan • Centaur Showdown • Checkmate • Chepultepec • Clear Decision • Cobweb (MND-CS) • Copperas Cove • Cyclone • Dagger • Demon Digger • Doctor • Dragons Breath • Dunlap • East Lansing • Flea Flicker • Fontana • Great Lakes • Green Trident • Grey Wolf II • Hedgehog • Hudson • Hunter • Iron Fist • Iron Hammer • Joint Venture • Kennesaw Dragon • Keystone Sweep • Knockout • Lanthonid • Liberty Express • Lightning • Lions • Matador • Mongoose • Moon • Moon River Dragon • Mountaineers • Moving Forward • Muthana Strike • National Unity • Neighborhood Watch • New Market • Open Window • Panthers(Numur) • Peninsula (MND-CS) • Pitchfork • Quickstrike • Rams • Restoring Rigthts • River Blitz • River Gate • River Walk • San Juan • Saratoga • Scimitar • Scrimmage • Seahorse • Shadyville • Shank • Skinner • Spear (Romhe) • Spider Web • Squeeze Play • Steel Curtain • Strategic Separation • Swashbuckle • Sword • Therapist • Thunder • Tigers (Numur) • Uhasar • Unforgiven • Vacant City • Warrior's Rage • White Shield • Wolf Stalk 2 • Woodstock
See also Veja também Iraq • Invasion • Post Invasion • Iraq Operations - Chronological • Timeline • Terrorist Attacks • Casualties
[show]v · d · e v · d · e
2006 Iraq war Operations
2006 Operations Arctic Sunrise • Al Majid • Babil Peremeter • Baghdad is Beautiful • Barnstormer • Bastogne • Beastmaster • Benefit Day • Bold Action • Chepultepec • Cobra Strike • Commando Hunter • Constitution Hammer • Coolspring VIII • Cougar • Cowpens • Dealer • Dirty Harry • Dragons Breath • Eagle Watch • El Toro Loco • Enduring Education • Falcon Sweep • Gaugamela • Gladiator • Glory Light • Guardian Tiger • Harvest Lights • Helping Hands • Industrial Revolution • Iron Arrow • Iron Arrow II • Iron Triangle • Jaws V • King Tut • Koa Canyon • Lightning Blitz • Lion • Lion Hunt • Lion Hunt II • Lofty Summit • Medusa • Minotaur • Money Worth • Moonlight • Northern Lights • Passage • Pitbull • Polar Black Diamond • Polar Valor • Post Hawk • Raging Bull • Red Bull • Red Light II • River Falcon • Roaring Tiger • Sandstorm • Scales of Justice • Scorpion • Smokewagon • Stallion Run • Sterling • SOUK • Swamp Fox • Swarmer • Swift Sword • Talon (Iraq) • Thunder Cat • Tinto • Together Forward • Trifecta • Tropical Lightning • Unified Fist • United Front
See also Veja também Iraq • Invasion • Post Invasion • Iraq Operations - Chronological • Timeline • Terrorist Attacks • Casualties
[show]v · d · e v · d · e
2007 Iraq war Operations
2007 Operations Agave L • Alljah • Ameliyet • Anchorage • Arbead II • Ardennes • Arrowhead Ripper • Arrowhead Strike III • Arrowhead Strike VI • Arrowhead Strike 9 • Arrowhead Strike 10 • Banzeen • Bastogne • Beach Yellow • Bear • Bell Hurriyah • Belleau Wood • Bethel • Black Eagle • Black Eagle II • Black Eagle City • Black Shark • Bonebreaker • Brown Hawk • Brutus • Bullrun • Castine • Cave Dweller • Chalons • Chesterfield • Church • Cobra Strike (2007) • Comanche Swarm II • Combined Justice • Eagle Ares • Commando Dive • Commando Eagle • Crazyhorse Thunder • Crimson Shogun • Destroyer Strike • Dixon • Dragon Fire • Dragon Fire East • Dragon Fox • Dragon Hammer • Dragon Talon II • Eagle Ares • Eagle Chickmauga • Eagle Claw XI • Eagle Dive I • Eagle Dive II • Eagle Lightning • Eagle Shiloh III • Eagle Sweep • Eagle Talon • Eagle Thunder III • Eagle Venture IV • Eagles • Eastern Fury • Elfin Cove • Enduring Education • Falcon Fury • Falcon Fury II • Falkirk • Firecracker • Four Brothers • Gator Run • Gecko • Gecko III A • Gecko III B • Geronimo Strike • Geronimo Strike II • Geronimo Strike III • Gold Digger • Golden Eagle II • Green Angel • Grenada • Greywolf Hammer II • Gun Barrel City • Headhunter • Hermes • Hit and Run • Hoplite • Iraqi Heart • Iraqi Home Protector • Iron Blitz • Ithaca • Justice League • Jalil • Justice Reach • K (Iraq) • Kids • Kodiak • Law and Order (Fardh Al Qanoon) • Leyte Gulf • Lightning Hammer • Lightning Hammer II • Lions Paw • Little Man • Marne Anvil • Marne Avalanche • Marne Husky • Marne Torch • Marne Torch II • Machete Harvest • Mawtini • Michigan • New Blue • New Day • Nijmegen • Nijmegen II • Nijmegen III • Northern Forge • Northern Venture • Northwestern Shoulder • Olympus • Patriot Strike • Pegasus Bridge • Peregrine II • Pericles • Phantom Strike • Phantom Thunder • Phoenix • Polar Charade • Polar Dive • Polar Scrum • Polar Tempest • Police Victory (Shurta Nasir) • Powerline • Punisher III • Purple Haze • Rat Trap • Red Eagle • Regular Justice • Rock Drill • Rock Hammer • Rogue Stomp • Rogue Thunder • Saber Boss • Saber Guardian • Safe Teach • Safety and Security • School Supplies • SINBAD • Sledgehammer • Snake River • Southern Scimitar • Stampede 3 • Street Sweeper II • Tacoma III • Three Swords • Tiger Hammer • The Iron Hammer • Tomahawk Strike 11 • Tomahawk Strike 12 • Trident IV • Turki Bowl • Turki Bowl II • Tuwaitha Sunrise • Valdez • Valiant Guardian (Harris Ba'sil) • Viking Clampdown III • Viking Snatch • Viking Squeeze • Vipers Bite • Waterfront • Warmup • White Rockets • Wickersham • Wickersham II • Wickersham III • William Wallace • Winston-Salem • Wolverine Alesia • Woodshed • Yukon River
See also Veja também Iraq • Invasion • Post Invasion • Iraq Operations - Chronological • Timeline • Terrorist Attacks • Casualties
[show]v · d · e v · d · e
2008 Iraq war Operations
2008 Operations Operation Defeat Al Qaeda in the North • Operation Iron Harvest • Operation Iron Reaper • Operation Marne Thunderbolt • Operation Phantom Phoenix • Operation Raider Harvest
See also Veja também Iraq • Invasion • Post Invasion • Iraq Operations - Chronological • Timeline • Terrorist Attacks • Casualties
Iraq War Coalition troop deployment [hide]
Troops at time of MNF-I deactivation Withdrawn troops (2008 - 2009) Withdrawn troops (2003 - 2007)
TOTAL INVASION DEPLOYMENT
Less than 200,000 troops
DEPLOYMENT DECEMBER 2009 (Approximate numbers)
United States : 150,000 invasion 165,000 peak- 112,000 (12/09)
NATO : A contingent of around 150 advisers under the separate command NATO Training Mission - Iraq
Multinational Force Iraq units
Multi-National Force - West
Multi-National Division - Baghdad
Multinational Division Central-South
Multi-National Division - North
Multi-National Division (South-East)
Logistics Support Area Anaconda
Australia : 2,000 invasion (withdrawn 7/09)
United Kingdom : 46,000 invasion (withdrawn 7/09)
Romania : 730 peak (deployed 7/03-withdrawn 7/09)
El Salvador : 380 peak (deployed 8/03-withdrawn 1/09)
Estonia : 40 troops (deployed 6/05-withdrawn 1/09)
Bulgaria : 485 peak (deployed 5/03-withdrawn 12/08)
Moldova : 24 peak (deployed 9/03-withdrawn 12/08)
Albania : 240 troops (deployed 4/03-withdrawn 12/08)
Ukraine : 1,650 peak (deployed 8/03-withdrawn 12/08)
Denmark : 545 peak (deployed 4/03-withdrawn 12/08)
Czech Republic : 300 peak (deployed 12/03-withdrawn 12/08)
South Korea : 3,600 peak (deployed 5/03-withdrawn 12/08)
Japan : 600 troops (deployed 1/04-withdrawn 12/08)
Tonga : 55 troops (deployed 7/04-withdrawn 12/08)
Azerbaijan : 250 peak (deployed 8/03-withdrawn 12/08)
Singapore : 175 offshore (deployed 12/03-withdrawn 12/08)
Bosnia and Herzegovina : 85 peak (deployed 6/05-withdrawn 11/08)
Macedonia : 77 peak (deployed 7/03-withdrawn 11/08)
Latvia : 136 peak (deployed 5/03-withdrawn 11/08)
Poland : 200 invasion —2,500 peak (withdrawn 10/08)
Kazakhstan : 29 troops (deployed 9/03-withdrawn 10/08)
Armenia : 46 troops (deployed 1/05-withdrawn 10/08)
Mongolia : 180 peak (deployed 8/03-withdrawn 09/08)
Georgia : 2,000 peak (deployed 8/03-withdrawn 8/08)
Slovakia : 110 peak (deployed 8/03-withdrawn 12/07)
Lithuania : 120 peak (deployed 6/03-withdrawn 08/07)
Italy : 3,200 peak (deployed 7/03-withdrawn 11/06)
Norway : 150 troops (deployed 7/03-withdrawn 8/06)
Hungary : 300 troops (deployed 8/03-withdrawn 3/05)
Netherlands : 1,345 troops (deployed 7/03-withdrawn 3/05)
Portugal : 128 troops (deployed 11/03-withdrawn 2/05)
New Zealand : 61 troops (deployed 9/03-withdrawn 9/04)
Thailand : 423 troops (deployed 8/03-withdrawn 8/04)
Philippines : 51 troops (deployed 7/03-withdrawn 7/04)
Honduras : 368 troops (deployed 8/03-withdrawn 5/04)
Dominican Republic : 302 troops (deployed 8/03-withdrawn 5/04)
Spain : 1,300 troops (deployed 4/03-withdrawn 4/04)
Nicaragua : 230 troops (deployed 9/03-withdrawn 2/04)
Iceland : 2 troops (deployed 5/03-withdrawal date unknown)
[show]v · d · e Armed Iraqi Groups in the Iraq War and the Civil war in Iraq
Insurgents Now-defunct Baathist rebels and insurgents Military of Iraq and Police Militias and others
Nationalist Salafies
Islamic Army in Iraq ( Al-Jaish Al-Islami fil-Iraq )
Sufi Naqshbandi Iraqis ( Naqshabandiya Army )
Iraqi Islamic Resistance Front ( JAAMI Iraqi nationalists )
Jaish al-Mujahideen
Mujahideen Battalions of the Salafi Group of Iraq
Islamic Salafist Boy Scout Battalions ( Kataab Ashbal Al Islam Al Salafi )
Mohammad's Army (aka Jeish Muhammad )
A guerrilla group opposed to the coalition forces, composed primarily of Sunnis believed to have Baathist ties.
Pan-Arab Nationalists
Nasserites
Jihadist Salafies
Islamic State of Iraq (till Nov '06, Mujahideen Shura Council )
Umbrella organization and de facto state
Al Qaeda in Iraq
Jeish al-Fatiheen (Conquering Army)
Jund al-Sahaba (Soldiers of the Sahaba )
Katbiyan Ansar Al-Tawhid wal Sunnah (Brigades of Monotheism and Religious Conservatism)
Jeish al-Taiifa al-Mansoura (Army of the Victorious Sect)
Monotheism Supporters Brigades
Saray al-Jihad Group
al-Ghuraba Brigades
al-Ahwal Brigades
Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad
A now-defunct militant organization led by al- Zarqawi preceding AQI .
Jamaat Ansar al-Sunna (formerly Jaish Ansar al-Sunna)
Ansar al-Islam
Black Banner Organization ( ar-Rayat as-Sawda )
Asaeb Ahl el-Iraq ( Factions of the People of Iraq )
Wakefulness and Holy War
Abu Theeb 's group
Jaish Abi Baker 's group
Baathists
Fedayeen Saddam ("Saddam's Men of Sacrifice")
A paramilitary organization loyal to the former Baathist regime of Saddam Hussein .
The Return ( al-Awda )
composed of former Ba'ath Party officials, intelligence agents, former members of the Republican Guard , the Special Republican Guard and Fedayeen Saddam militia.
General Command of the Armed Forces, Resistance and Liberation in Iraq
Iraqi Popular Army
New Return
Patriotic Front
Political Media Organ of the Ba'ath Party (Jihaz al-Iilam al-Siasi lil hizb al-Baath)
Popular Resistance for the Liberation of Iraq
Al-Abud Network
Iraqi Army Exército iraquiano
The Iraqi Army is a component of the Iraqi Security Forces tasked with assuming responsibility for all Iraqi land-based military operations following the 2003 Invasion of Iraq .
Iraqi Air Force
Iraqi Police
The Iraqi Police are the organic civil police force of the Republic of Iraq. There are three main branches.
Iraqi Police Service (IPS): Responsible for the day to day patrolling of cities around most crimes.
National Police (NP): Paramilitary force for counterinsurgency, public disorder and counter terrorist tasks.
Supporting Forces: Remaining police organizations, primarily the Department of Border Enforcement (DBE).
Facilities Protection Service
A paramilitary force responsible for protecting government buildings and facilities.
Shia militia
Mahdi Army ( Jaish-i-Mahdi )(جيش المهدي)
The Mahdi Army is a militia force created by the Iraqi Shia cleric Muqtada al-Sadr in June of 2003, disbanded in 2008.
Abu Deraa 's Mahdi Army faction
In the fall of 2006, Abu Deraa and his supporters formed their own militia.
Badr Organisation (originally Badr Brigade/Bader Corps) (منظمة بدر)
The armed wing of the Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI).
Sheibani Network
Smuggling network and Insurgent group, which both supplies other insurgents and attacks coalition and Iraqi forces.
Soldiers of Heaven
an armed Iraqi Shi'a sect .
Special Groups (Iraq) Iranian backed factions of the Mahdi Army which went on to become separate organisations which continued fighting after the Mahdi Army's disbanding.
Asa'ib Ahl al-Haq (League of the Righteous)
The largest Special Group, led by Qais al-Khazali and later [[Akram al-Kabi].
Promised Day Brigades
The Special Group which was created as successor of the Mahdi Army and continued activities against US and coalition forces
Kata'ib Hezbollah (Hezbollah Brigades)
The most notorious Special Group, it became completely independent from the Mahdi Army and other Special Groups.
Sunni militias
Awakening groups
1920 Revolution Brigades
Jaish al-Rashideen
Islamic Front for the Iraqi Resistance ( al-Jabha al-Islamiya lil-Moqawama al-Iraqiya - JAMI )
Hamas of Iraq
Kurdish militias
Peshmerga Peshmerga
- term used by Kurds to refer to armed Kurdish fighters. The term is now officially used for the security forces of Iraq's Kurdistan Autonomous Region .
Kurdistan Workers Party or PKK. A militant separatist organization whose goal is the creation of a separate Kurdish state in Turkey. Currently has bases in Iraqi Kurdistan's Qandil mountains.
Party for a Free Life in Kurdistan or PJAK. A militant separatist organization whose goal is overthrowing the Islamic government of Iran. Currently taking refuge in the Qandil mountains.
Minority militias
Qaraqosh Protection Committee , an Assyrian Christian self-defence force
Malik Al-Tawus Troop , a Yezidi self-defence force in northern Iraq
[show]v · d · e Terrorism in Asia
Sovereign Soberano
states estados Afghanistan · Armenia · Azerbaijan · Bahrain · Bangladesh · Bhutan · Brunei · Burma (Myanmar) · Cambodia · People's Republic of China · Cyprus · East Timor (Timor-Leste) · Egypt · Georgia · India · Indonesia · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Japan · Jordan · Kazakhstan · North Korea · South Korea · Kuwait · Kyrgyzstan · Laos · Lebanon · Malaysia · Maldives · Mongolia · Nepal · Oman · Pakistan · Philippines · Qatar · Russia · Saudi Arabia · Singapore · Sri Lanka · Syria · Tajikistan · Thailand · Turkey · Turkmenistan · United Arab Emirates · Uzbekistan · Vietnam · Yemen Afeganistão · Armênia · Azerbaijão · Bahrein · Bangladesh · Butão · Brunei · Birmânia (Myanmar) · Camboja · da República Popular da China · Chipre · Timor-Leste (-Timor-Leste) · Egito · Geórgia · Índia · Indonésia · Irã · Iraque · Israel · Japão · Jordânia · Cazaquistão · Coreia do Norte · Coreia do Sul · Kuwait · Quirguistão · Laos · Líbano · Malásia · Maldivas · Mongólia · Nepal · Omã · Paquistão · Filipinas · Qatar · Rússia · Arábia Saudita · Singapura · Sri Lanka · Síria · Tajiquistão · Tailândia · Turquia · Turquemenistão · Emirados Árabes Unidos · Uzbequistão · Vietnã · Iêmen
States with limited Membros com limitada
recognition reconhecimento Abkhazia · Nagorno-Karabakh · Northern Cyprus · Palestine · Republic of China (Taiwan) · South Ossetia Abkhazia · Nagorno-Karabakh · Chipre do Norte · Palestina · República Popular da China (Taiwan) · Ossétia do Sul
Dependencies , Dependências ,
autonomies , autonomias ,
other territories outros territórios Aceh · Adjara · Akrotiri and Dhekelia · Altai · British Indian Ocean Territory · Buryatia · Christmas Island · Cocos (Keeling) Islands · Guangxi · Hong Kong · Inner Mongolia · Iraqi Kurdistan · Khakassia · Macau · Nakhchivan · Ningxia · Papua · Sakha Republic · Tibet · Tuva · West Papua · Xinjiang Aceh · Adjara · Akrotiri e Dhekelia · Altai · Oceano Índico Território Britânico · Buryatia · Ilha Christmas · Ilhas Cocos (Keeling) · Guangxi · Hong Kong · Mongólia · Curdistão iraquiano · Khakassia · Macau · Nakhchivan · Ningxia · Papua · República Sakha · Tibet · Tuva · Papua Ocidental · Xinjiang
[show]v · d · e v · d · e Iraq topics Iraque tópicos
Society Sociedade Iraqi people ( Iraqi diaspora · Assyrian diaspora · Kurds · Assyrians · Chaldeans · Madan · Turkmen · Mandaeans ) • Demographics • Languages ( Arabic · Kurdish · Neo-Aramaic · Turkmen · Mandaic ) • Religion ( Islam · Christianity · Mandaeism · Judaism ) • Education • Health • Sports • Music • Cuisine · Law povo iraquiano ( diáspora iraquiana · Assírio diáspora · curdos · assírios · caldeus · Madan · Turcomenistão · madianitas ) • Demografia • Línguas ( árabe · curda · neo-aramaico · Turcomenistão · Mandaic ) • Religião ( Islã · Cristianismo · Mandaeism · Judaísmo ) • Educação • Saúde • Esporte • Música • Culinária · Lei
History História Ancient Iraq ( Sumer · Akkad · Babylonia · Assyria · Neo-Assyrian Empire · Neo-Babylonian Empire · Achaemenid Assyria · Seleucid Empire · Parthian Empire · Sassanid Empire · Asuristan ) • Islamic conquest of Iraq • Abbasid Caliphate • Ottoman Iraq • British Mandate of Mesopotamia • Kingdom of Iraq • Republic of Iraq • Saddam Hussein • Iran–Iraq War • Invasion of Kuwait • Persian Gulf War • Sanctions • US invasion of Iraq • Occupation of Iraq • Iraqi Resistance • Withdrawal of US troops from Iraq
Economy Economia Iraqi Dinar • Stock Exchange • Central Bank • Oil reserves • Media Dinar iraquiano • Bolsa • Banco Central • Reservas de Petróleo • Media
Infrastructure Infra-estrutura Communications • Transportation • Schools • Hospitals • Roads • Reconstruction
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Texto original em inglês:
According to US President George W. Bush and British Prime Minister Tony Blair , the reasons for the invasion were "to disarm Iraq of weapons of mass destruction, to end Saddam Hussein's alleged support for terrorism , and to free the Iraqi people." [ 20 ] According to Blair, the trigger was Iraq's failure to take a "final opportunity" to disarm itself of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons that US and British officials called an immediate and intolerable threat to world peace. [ 21 ] Although some remnants of pre-1991 production were found after the end of the war [ citation needed ] , US government spokespeople confirmed that these were not the weapons for which the US went to war [ citation needed ] .
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